Chapter 8.

Service Scheduling

8.
Service Scheduling
The quality of public transportation service is a broad concept that encompasses
various aspects, including considerations related to the
comfort and safety within the transport unit, the time taken
in the realization of the trip and the convenience and existence of infrastructure that
support the service.

However, when reviewing the service provided on a transport route

it is not feasible to consider a good number of qualitative aspects, but it is
It is feasible to take into account the most important variables for the user. From this
way, among the main parameters related to service quality and that
are included in the sizing of a transportation service, they are:

• vehicle capacity
• interval
• service hours
• the preparation of itineraries
• the determination of the type of vehicle

The number of vehicles is the parameter that best reflects the balance.
between the supply and demand of public transportation. For example, in the case
having more buses in service than required results in a surplus
of supply and idleness of the equipment, which leads to a high cost in the
operation that invariably results in excessive charges for the user.
This is a case that has become widespread in recent years in our country.

On the other hand, if there is a vehicle fleet below the

real requirements, a poor quality of service is presented that translates into
disturbances and insecurity for the user. This is why both the area in charge of the
operation within the company as the corresponding authorities will have the
difficult task of finding the right balance between supply and demand.

The knowledge of the population's needs and the use of techniques

service planning and its sizing prevent waste of
resources, both human and economic, and contribute to achieving an adjustment
rational within the transport system or the company itself.

The general procedure followed for scheduling the service is

shown in Figure 8.1, whose concepts will be developed throughout the chapter.
As seen in the previous figure, topics related to
service sizing, itinerary preparation, assignment of the
workdays, among other aspects, considering that the layout of the route

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it is already defined.

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Design and instrumentation of the route

Aforos of Capacity of
times of frequencies
route and load

Processing Processing Trend

and synthesis of and synthesis of of
results results income

Relationship Travel
from programmed
intervals incomplete

Draft of the Information of

leaf of the other departments
Sheet of dispatcher of the company
times of
route
Leaf
del
dispatcher

Leaf
of
subdivision
Passing schedule

Diagram and sheet Leaf

of of cut
tours routes

Control sheet
Sheet of
assignment of
journeys

Payroll

Figure 8.1.
Procedure for creating itineraries.

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8.1 Sizing of a transport route

The sizing of a bus route or the development of its scheme
operation can be performed manually following the procedures
indicated below or by using procedures
mathematics that allows defining the optimal intervals of a certain route,
among which are the programs HASTUS, EPON, Busman, and Rucus,
among others [1]. The use of any of the previous computer programs, with
greater or lesser difficulty, they allow for attention to several areas of interest [1] in the
planning of public transport and its operation. Among these areas is
they find:

• the analysis of variations in operating costs due to the

changes in the Collective Labor Agreement, in the level of service or in the
method of operation,
• the translation of the demand for feasible operating hours of the
units,
• the assignment of economic shifts for the operator.

However, in any case, it is essential to understand the elements

basics that intervene in the design which the authors consider relevant
to develop the foundations of sizing and scheduling the service more than to
a description or analysis of the previous programs.

8.1.1 Definition of basic elements

Figures 8.2 and 8.3 show the commonly used graphical representations.
used in the operation of public transport routes, which contain the
basic elements that are defined below [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].

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SMD M a x i m u m Demand Section

P
αmax =
C

Cma
C

p P

SMD
Distancia
Parade

Figure 8.2.
Graphic representation of terms related to the distribution of demand of
Passengers and capacity.

Terminal tt

V
Parade

Vehicle

Vehicle
2

Terminal i tt Time out

tr
tc

Figure 8.3.
Graphical representation of the parameters related to the journey of the
vehicles and their programming.

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[Link] Interval
The interval (i) is the portion of time, commonly expressed in minutes, between
two successive departures of public transport vehicles on a route. The user
is interested in having a service with short intervals to minimize the
waiting time at the stop. However, due to the fact that for a volume of
passengers given per hour, it is cheaper to operate a smaller number of
larger vehicles than a greater number of small vehicles, the carrier
is, in turn, interested in operating with vehicles of greater capacity to
larger intervals. Consequently, the intervals are determined
as a trade-off between the time the user waits at the bus stop and the costs
of operation that the transport company faces.

The point along the route where the minimum possible intervals between
successive vehicles are the largest, determine the minimum interval for the whole
line. Therefore, the minimum possible interval in a line or route (imin) is presented
at stops with a large number of passenger ascents/descents, being the
the largest interval of all the critical and therefore represents the minimum interval
possible on the route.

[Link] Service frequency.

The frequency (f) is the number of units that pass a given point on the route.
for an hour (or any considered period of time), being this the
inverse of the interval. Both are related by the expression:

60
f=
i

where:

60 = Conversion factor from minutes to hours

f Frequency [vehicles/hour]
i Interval [minutes]

The maximum frequency of vehicle arrivals (f maxis determined by the

minimum interval as:

60
fmax =
Imin

[Link] Vehicle capacity

The vehicle capacity (C) isv the total number of spaces in the vehicle. It

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it calculates by adding the number of seats plus the standing spaces. This definition
it is acceptable for the metro, urban buses, and trolleybus lines. For trains
and regional and long-distance buses, with average travel lengths
considerable and low passenger turnover as well as for fixed-route taxis
(collectives), the seating capacity is what determines the vehicle capacity
since in the first case the travel times are long and it is detrimental
of its comfort and in the second, the design of the units themselves prevents the
transport, within safety and comfort standards, of standing users.

[Link] Passenger volume

The passenger volume (p) is the number of users that pass through a fixed point.
during one hour, or another specific period of time. The volume of passengers
varies along the route according to the variations of the time of day, day of the
week and time of year.

[Link] Maximum Demand Section

It is the section (SMD) or point within the route where the maximum demand occurs.
of passengers on board the unit and establishes the design volume of the route. The
SMD is shown in the previous Figure 8.2.

[Link] Design Volume

The design volume (P) is the one presented in the peak demand section.
of a route, and consequently, the largest volume of any stop or section to
along the route, as shown in the previous Figure 8.2. This volume is the
basic parameter for determining the line capacity that should be offered.

[Link] Offered line capacity

The line capacity (C) is the total number of spaces offered at a fixed point.
of a route for one hour. The line capacity is essential for planning.
and design of public transport and is the result of the product of the frequency and the
vehicular capacity. Naturally, a capacity equal to or should be provided.
greater than P.

C = f x Cv
where:
C = Line capacity [passengers/hour]
f = Frequency [vehicles/hour]
Cv = Capacidad del vehículo [pasajeros/vehículo]

[Link] Maximum line capacity

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The maximum line capacity (C It ismax the maximum number of passengers per
time that a line can carry with the minimum possible interval. This parameter is
obtains as the product of the maximum frequency and the vehicle's capacity:

60× Cv
Cmax= fmax× Cv=
imin

[Link] Travel time

The travel time (t) is the rscheduled time interval between departures of
a vehicle from one terminal (circuit closure) and its arrival at the opposite terminal
on a route, or in its case, to the same departure terminal. The travel time
is usually expressed in minutes.

[Link] Operating speed

The operating speed (V) is the o average speed of a unit of

transport, which includes the waiting time at stations or stops as well
like the expected delays due to traffic.

It is calculated as the ratio between the length in one direction (L) in kilometers.
and the time it takes for the unit to cover that distance, in minutes:

60× L
Vo=
tr

where:

Vo = Velocidad de operación [km/h]

L = Longitud de la ruta [km]
tr = Tiempo de recorrido [min]
[Link] Terminal time
It is the additional time (t)t that a vehicle waits at the terminal or at the closure of
circuit required for the normal ascent and descent of passengers. Its
The purpose is to have time to turn the vehicle or change the cabin of
command; to give the operator a break and; to allow for necessary adjustments
on schedule. This time allows, in addition to the previous considerations,
maintain a uniform interval and/or recover the delays to which it has been
incurred.

Therefore, the terminal time is generally determined based on

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of the operators' breaks, of the time required to carry out the

checking activities by the dispatcher and the propensity for delays
on the route. Normally, the minimum rest time is set within the
Collective Labor Agreement based on studies of the necessary times for the
recovery from fatigue, while the rest and recovery times
delays are based on the time the unit is in operation, therefore
that the terminal time for surface systems is expressed through a
coefficient g that relates terminal time and operation time:

tt
V=
to

The range for this coefficient g is between 0.12 and 0.18, the same as
it depends on the working conditions, on traffic, on variations in the
passenger volume and other local factors. On certain lines and during certain
periods of the day where traffic congestion is serious, travel time varies
considerably so that in some cases terminal times are allowed
adults, achieving with it that the departure time of the return trip can
to stay and to be able to keep the schedules even when delays occur
moderate.

For the subway or other high-reliability scheduling systems, the time

the terminal is independent of the operating time and line length,
being able to be much shorter than for surface routes that operate in transit
mixed.

[Link] Cycle or turnaround time

The cycle time (t) is cthe total round-trip time for a unit of
transport, that is, the time it takes for the same unit to pass again through a
determined point, which is usually expressed in minutes. This time is
given, in the event that your travel times and terminal are the same in each
address, by:

tc = 2 r (t t+ t)

[Link] Commercial speed

It is the average speed (V) that
c a means of transport maintains to give
a full turn.

120× L
Vc=
tc

where:

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Vc = Commercial speed [km/h]

tc = Tiempo de ciclo [min]

The commercial speed is vital for the carrier as it determines

directly (along with the interval) the required size of the vehicle fleet and the
Operating costs. Commercial speed will always be less than the speed
of operation since the first includes the terminal times, therefore:

Vc < Vo

[Link] Size of the vehicle fleet

The size of the vehicle fleet (N) is the
p total number of units that operate in
a route and the sum of these represents the total park that the company has
of transport. The size of the vehicle fleet consists of the number of vehicles
required for the service during peak demand hour on all routes
the vehicles in reserve and the vehicles
r that are under maintenance
repair (N). This
mvalue is expressed by the following formula:

Np = N +r N m
+ N

[Link] Efficiency parameters

In the development of a service program, four indicators are presented
efficiency that, together, give us an indicator of staff performance
located between 0.4 and 0.6 [3]. This indicator is represented as follows
manner

η=η·η·η·η
v d s t

where:
η = personnel efficiency factor
ηv = route efficiency factor
ηd = efficiency factor in personnel allocation
ηs = efficiency factor regarding vacation aspects,
illness, holidays, reserve personnel
ηt efficiency factor according to work standards due to the
consideration of the yields on Saturday and Sunday

Below is a brief description of each of these.

factors. The estimation of the staff efficiency factor indicates the percentage of
time that the operators are actually providing service and it is estimated that the
next way:

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tr 1 V
η v= = = c
t c 1+ γVo

where:
tr = travel time
tc = cycle time
γ = quotient of terminal time over travel time
Vo = speed of operation
Vc = commercial speed

On the other hand, the efficiency factor in staff allocation (h) d

it represents the unproductive time that is usually paid within a
itinerary. For example, we have the preparation and enclosure times of the
units, downtime or idle time, rest times, times
of relief, the compensation in personnel assignments, among others.

Figure 8.4 shows the maximum efficiency in personnel allocation.

depending on the duration of the workday and preparation times
and the confinement of the units. These last two times are the ones that affect

97.0 15 min.

96.0 20 min.

95.0 25 min.

94.0 30 min.

93.0

0
7 7.5 8 8.5 9 [hours]

Daily journey
mostly the efficiency in the allocation of personnel.

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Source: Based on reference [4].

Figure 8.4.
Influence of the preparation and confinement time of the unit on efficiency
staff assignment.

At the same time, the efficiency factor due to inherent aspects of the personnels (h)
consider the aspects of vacation periods and illnesses
among others, it is mainly composed of the following two factors:

Vacations. The factor of loss of working hours due to periods

Vacation-related estimates are based on the following relationship:

U ⋅ tx
µ= ×100
X⋅ d

where:

µ = percentage loss due to vacations [%]

U = días de vacaciones anuales [días]
tx = average working day [hours]
X = duración de la jornada semanal [horas]
d = paid weekly hours to staff [h]

Illness. The factor of work hour losses due to

diseases are estimated from the following expression.

X⋅K
E= ×100
7 ⋅D

where:

K = annual sick days in the company [days]

X = duración de la jornada semanal [h]
D = annual hours of work paid to staff
E = percentage loss due to diseases

Table 8.1 shows some ranges that can be considered within the
efficiency factor due to inherent aspects of the personnel.

FACTOR PERCENTAGE (%)

Holidays from 8 to 9
Disease from 5 to 7
Reservation staff from 3 to 4

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Absences from 0.2 to 0.3

Business days holidays from 2 to 3
Total from 18.2 to 23.3

Source: Based on reference [4].

Table 8.1.
Inherent factors related to personnel.

The efficiency factor due to inherent aspects of the personnel is located

normally between 0.818 and 0.767. However, these values will depend on the
company and the particular conditions presented by its Collective Agreements
of Work.

Finally, the efficiency factor according to regulations in the work due to the
Saturday and Sunday yields depend on the business days and the
percentage of staff who worked on Saturdays and Sundays. It is as follows:

5+ λ s+ λ d
ηt =
7

where:

λ=
s percentage of staff working on Saturdays
λ=
d percentage of staff working on Sundays

8.1.2 Criteria for determining the basic elements of

sizing
The basic criteria are focused on aspect of intervals, factors of
occupation, size of the vehicle fleet, and vehicle capacity, mainly.
The following are the most important criteria to consider:

[Link] Intervals
The requirements to determine the intervals are as follows:

• Provide adequate capacity to meet demand

of users.
• Offer a certain minimum frequency in order to maintain a service

The frequency that will provide the necessary capacity to comply with the
demand is obtained by dividing the load in the maximum demand section by

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the average number of passengers assigned to each vehicle through the

selection of a value for the occupancy factor (a). This frequency is expressed
as:

p
f=
α ⋅ Cv

or well:
60⋅ α ⋅ Cv
i=
P

To facilitate the memorization of the interval and the creation of schedules, it is

it is advisable that intervals longer than 6 minutes are repeated every hour. Therefore
thus, the interval must be divisible as an integer by 60, that is:

i = 6, 7.5 (7/8), 10, 12, 15, 20 y 30

When using intervals greater than 30 minutes, it is advisable to manage

values of 40, 45 and 60 min so the interval should be rounded down
to the closest value to these values.

In the case of low demand hours or off-peak hours, during the weekends
week or on those routes with low demand, it is usually handled a
minimum frequency required to maintain the service and therefore the companies and/or
authority sets a minimum range. This range is known as an interval
minimum service (i) which,
s in urban areas, must not be greater than one hour
and it is recommended that it be no longer than 30 minutes.

If the interval is calculated at the hours of minimum demand based on the

loads and occupancy factors with the aim of achieving loads in the unit
equal to the seating capacity, savings are achieved in terms of the amount of
service offered (vehicles-kilometers) and operated (vehicles-hours). However,
the number of units will be reduced and the user's waiting intervals will
will be increased. That is why this minimum service interval depends
the financial capability of the company to provide the service, of the goals
social policies pursued by the authority and the size of the existing labor force
during peak demand hours and with what is available during the hours
valley.

[Link] Occupancy Factor

The occupancy factor (a) is the quotient of the number of passengers in a vehicle.
between the vehicle's capacity. A high value of a indicates that the unit of
transport is saturated, making it feasible that some units do not have
the sufficient capacity to collect all the users who are waiting
(remainder).

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The value of this factor influences the following characteristics of the

public transport operation

• The user's level of comfort. A high value of a results in

a considerable number of standing users and the overload of the vehicle.
• Operating costs. The use of a high value of a implies a lower number
of units to transport a given number of users that in the case
to use a low value of a. In turn, a lower amount of units
resulting in a lower frequency and thus greater
waiting times for the user. Finally, a high value of a results in a
longer ascent/descent time, which reduces the speed of
operation and directly affects operating costs.

The selection of a value of α must be made in such a way that it is achieved.

a balance between the aforementioned factors [2]. The operator or entrepreneur
determine the value of a also consider the following factors that influence in
the comfort of the user and the operating costs.

Conditions that require a value Conditions that require a value

down high
• Large variations in the • Volume more or less constant
volume of users of users
•A is desired relationship • It is desired a relationship
seats/standing room seats/standing minor
• Average length of • Average travel length
large tour small
• High percentage of elderly people • High percentage of school-age children
school

It is common for the operator to determine a value for a for each period of
schedule programming (higher for peak hours, lower for off-peak hours)
first calculating the quotient of the number of seats and the total capacity
from the vehicle s C/C
v and based on the values found, the following are used
guidelines

• The minimum value of a must be slightly less than the ratio C/C This s v.
value guarantees seats to all users except for some periods
shorts.
• The recommended maximum value of a is 0.9 which should be used
for peak demand hours in the case of having a section of
maximum short demand and where passenger volume does not vary
significantly from one day to the next [2]. In some Mexican cities this
Unfortunately, the factor remains above 0.9, exceeding the
nominal capacity of the vehicle with the consequent inconveniences to the user and
the fatigue of the units.

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[Link] Size of the vehicle fleet and capacity of

vehicle
For a given volume of passengers on a route, the service can be
provided by a small number of high-capacity units or, in other words,
for a larger quantity of low-capacity units. The second combination
results in a higher frequency, but requires a total investment and costs of
operation greater than the first combination.

It is healthy for a transportation company to conduct a detailed analysis.

of the costs of operating a certain type of unit; establish the conditions in
that will operate the team and evaluate the quality of the service that will result from the use of
each type of vehicle before making any purchase of units. It is
essential that the company specify and establish the conditions more
important requirements that the units must meet and based on these results
determine the expected mileage and lifespan.

When planning the purchase of new units, the transport company must
examine the possible compromises between a small vehicle and a large one. If
the advantages (+) and disadvantages (-) presented by both the units of
high capacity against low capacity, it is known that the latter present
the following scheme:

The operating cost per vehicle-km is lower for the low units.
capacity. This implies that for the same total operating cost
the company can operate shorter intervals with smaller units and
therefore attracting more passengers as their waiting times are shorter and
to have a more frequent service.
Travelling through congested areas is faster and
simple.
The total acquisition cost and the operating cost of the vehicle fleet of
minibuses are greater since more of them must be purchased and operated to
cover the volume of passengers that occurs at peak time
demand.

8.1.3 Example of route sizing

The very nature of the procedure for sizing a route facilitates the
show the steps that should be followed from an example, which is developed
next:

[Link] Collection of the required information

The main parameters that must be taken into account for sizing
of a route are the following:

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 Chapter 8. Service Programming

• Length of the route in one direction L = 10 km.

• Travel time tr = 45 minutes peak hour (HMD)
tr = 40 minutes valley hour (HV)
• Design volume P = 375 peak hour users (HMD)
• Vehicle capacity Cv = 45 seats + 25 standing = 70
spaces

[Link] Determination of operational factors that

incident on the route
As a first step, the speed at which the units will operate is estimated.
from the route, starting from the following equation:

60× L
Vo=
tr

with which the following speeds result:

Vo = 13.3 km/h for peak hour (HMD)

Vo = 15.0 km/h for the off-peak hour (HV)

Based on the values a, i, andst used

t in other similar routes, the
the company establishes the following assumptions, which will be adjusted during the
route sizing process. For our example, these values
initials are:

• Occupancy factor a = 0.70

• Minimum service interval its = 15 minutes
• Minimum terminal time tt = 6 minutes

[Link] Determination of the interval

The interval i is calculated from the following equation:

60⋅ α ⋅ Cv60× 0.7× 70

I= = = 7.84 minutes
P 375

The value of the interval i resulting from the previous equation must be
rounded down to the nearest practical value for the intervals. If the
the obtained value is greater than six minutes, it is advisable to use the following
values 7.5, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 40, 45, and 60. This achieves that the times of
the unit outputs repeat every hour, except for the intervals of 40 and 45
minutes.

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On the other hand, the calculated interval must be compared with the interval
minimum service i for s the period that is being scheduled for the service,
selecting the lesser of the two. Since in this case the calculated value of
the interval is i = 7.84 and this is smaller than i = 15 minutes,
s then the
The value of 7.5 minutes is considered as the interval during peak hours and 15.
minutes during the off-peak hour. Naturally, the value i can
s be estimated in the case
to know the load in the SMD during the off-peak hour.

[Link] Calculation of cycle time

The cycle time is calculated from the following expression:

tc = 2 r (t t+ t)

= 2 (45 + 6) = 102 minutes for peak hour

= 2 (40 + 6) = 92 minutes for the valley hour

[Link] Determination of the size of the vehicle fleet

The vehicle fleet is determined by applying the following expression:

tc
N=
i

Since the vehicle fleet N must be an integer value, the result of the
the previous expression is rounded up to the next whole number. For the
example:

102
NHMD = = 13.6≈ 14 vehicles in HMD
7.5

92
NHV= = 6.3≈ 7 vehicles in the HV
15

Based on these new results, it is necessary to adjust the new time for
cycle based on the estimated values of the vehicle fleet, which implies:

tc = N · i
= 14 x 7.5 = 105 minutes HMD
= 7 x 15 = 105 minutes HV

Although in the example the cycle time is the same for both periods
Under consideration, these times usually vary from one another. A
Next, a new terminal time (t) is calculated from the expression:
t

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 Chapter 8. Service Programming

t c − 2tr
tt=
2
105− 2(45)
= = 7.5 minutes HD
2
105− 2(40)
= = 12.5 minutes HV
2

Finally, using the previous data, the commercial speed V is calculated. c:

120⋅ L
VC=
tc
120(10)
VcHMD = = 11.4Km/h for the HMD
105
120(10)
VcHV = = 11.4Km/h for the HV
105

The previous results allow us to size the route, synthesizing the

sizing parameters in the following manner:

Concept Peak time Valley Hour

demand
Interval 7.5 minutes 15 min
Cycle time 105 min 105 min
Terminal time 7.5 min 12.5 minutes
Fleet size 14 vehicles 7 veh
Commercial speed 11.4 km/h 11.4 km/h
Itinerary efficiency 0.86 0.76
tto
/t (γ) 0.08 0.16

Figure 8.5 shows an example of how this analysis can be presented.

as well as the parameters for their sizing.

8.1.4 Intervals on trunk routes

The union of two or more routes or branches to a common trunk section creates the
problem of maintaining uniform intervals and equal loads between the different
units that transit through the trunk section. The analysis of the frequency in the section
trunk is important as it represents the critical value for the capacity of all
the converging lines. To do this:

• If there are branches with similar user volumes, it is scheduled.

its operation with the same interval.

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