34 Consider the loop ABCD as shown on the and compare the entropy changes taking place

graph. The temperature at A is 800 K. in the ice and in the water during the following
processes. (Assume that there are no energy
p / × 105 Pa
A B
exchanges between the ice–water system and
4
the surroundings.)
3 a The temperature of the ice increases from
2 !10 °C to 0 °C.
D C
b The ice is melting.
1
c All the ice has melted and the water is
0 approaching its final temperature of +15 °C.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
36 Explain whether you should invest money in a
V / m3
revolutionary new heat engine whose inventor
Calculate: claims that it operates between temperatures of
a the temperature at points B, C and D 300 K and 500 K with an efficiency of 0.42.
b the change in internal energy along each of 37 a State the Clausius form of second law of
the four legs of the cycle thermodynamics.
c the amount of energy given to and taken b Show that if a heat engine had a greater
from the gas along each leg efficiency than the Carnot efficiency the
d the efficiency of the cycle. second law in a would be violated. (Imagine
35 A quantity of ice at !10 °C is dropped into the work output of the engine to be the input
water. All the ice eventually melts and the final work in a Carnot refrigerator.)
temperature of the water is +15 °C. Describe

B3 Fluids (HL) Learning objectives

This section deals with fluids at rest and fluids in motion. The
equilibrium and motion of fluids are of importance in very many
• Work with density and pressure.

di%erent disciplines. Understanding how fluids behave is crucial in the

• Apply Archimedes’ principle.

design of aircraft and cars, in monitoring blood flow in the arteries of a

• Apply Pascal’s principle.

patient, in the efficient use of water by agricultural engineers – but also

• Apply hydrostatic equilibrium.

to a theoretical astrophysicist working with models of stars. We will

• Appreciate the ideal fluid.

meet Archimedes’ important principle about buoyant forces and a few of

• Understand streamlines.

the the many applications of the Bernoulli equation.

• Apply the continuity equation.
and the Bernoulli equation.
B3.1 Pressure • Apply Stokes’ law and
understand viscosity.
Consider a fluid in a container (Figure B.42). The surface of the fluid is • Distinguish between laminar
exposed to the atmosphere. The pressure of the fluid at the top surface and turbulent flow.
is equal to atmospheric pressure. As we move deeper into the fluid, the • Appreciate the meaning of the
pressure increases, because of the weight of the fluid above each given Reynolds number.
point. Figure B.42 shows a region of the fluid marked by a dashed line.
The fluid inside the line is in equilibrium, so the net force on it is zero. pA
The forces on this region are the weight of the fluid within it, the force p0 A

due to the pressure at the top surface and the pressure at the lower surface. mg
h
We denote atmospheric pressure by patm = p 0. Atmospheric pressure
varies depending on location; the standard value at sea level is taken to
F
be 1.0 × 105 Pa. Remember that p = ⇒ F = pA. Equilibrium requires
A
that: (A is the area of the top and lower surfaces of the fluid and mg the
weight of the fluid in the marked region)

pA = p 0A + mg Figure B.42 The pressure increases as the

depth h increases.

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 But:

mg = ρVg

= ρAhg

where ρ is the density of the liquid. Hence:

pA = p 0A + ρAhg

p = p 0 + ρgh

We see that, at a depth h below the free surface of the fluid, the pressure
depends both on the quantity ρgh, associated with the weight of the fluid
in the dotted region, and on the atmospheric pressure at the top surface.
It is important to note that the pressure at the same depth of a
connected fluid in equilibrium is the same no matter what the shape of
the container (Figure B.43).
This is the basis for an instrument, called a manometer, for
measuring pressure (Figure B.44).
The U-shaped tube is filled with a liquid of density ρ. The di%erence
in the liquid levels in the two columns is h. The pressure of the liquid
is equal anywhere along the dashed horizontal line. On the left side,
the pressure is equal to the pressure p of the gas. On the right side, it is
equal to p 0 + ρgh, where p 0 is atmospheric pressure. These are equal, so
Figure B.43 The pressure is the same at any p = p 0 + ρgh.
point along a given horizontal dashed line.
B3.2 Pascal’s principle
atmospheric
pressure
Pascal’s principle states that, when pressure is applied to any point of
an enclosed, incompressible fluid, the pressure will be transmitted to
all other parts of the liquid and the walls of the container of the fluid.
gas at h Figure B.45 shows an enclosed fluid. A force F1 is applied to a piston of
pressure p
area A1. The pressure in the liquid immediately below the piston is
F1
therefore p1 = . This is also the pressure right under the second, larger
A1
Figure B.44 Using a manometer, the piston, because they are at the same horizontal level. But the pressure
pressure of a gas may be determined from F2
the value of atmospheric pressure and the there is also p2 = A . Hence:
2
difference in height of the two columns.
F1 F 2
=
A1 A2

This shows that a small force F1 applied to a small piston can give rise to
a larger force on a larger piston – lifting a heavy object such as a car in
the case of a hydraulic lift. Note, however, that the smaller force must
push through a larger distance, d1 in order to lift the heavy load by a
distance d2 such that F1 × d1 = F2 × d2.

F1
F2

Figure B.45 A hydraulic lift: a small force gets multiplied and lifts a heavy object.

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B3.3 Archimedes’ principle a

A body that is totally or partially immersed in a fluid will experience an

upward force called the buoyant force. Consider a region of a fluid that
has been marked. The fluid is in equilibrium, so its weight is balanced
by the buoyant force (Figure B.46). The buoyant force is the result of
the pressure acting on the body from all directions.
Because the pressure is higher at greater depths, the net force exerted
by the surrounding fluid is directed upwards, and is just equal to the
weight of the fluid in the marked region (otherwise the fluid would
b
move). Now replace the marked fluid with a body that just fits that
space. The buoyant force remains equal to the weight of the displaced
fluid. The arrows representing the pressure are the same as before, so the
net force they give rise to is the same as before; it equals the weight of
the displaced fluid. This is Archimedes’ principle:

A body partially or completely immersed in a fluid experiences a

buoyant force B that equals the weight of the displaced fluid.
Figure B.46 a Fluid pressure acts on all sides
of the marked region of the liquid. It is larger
The weight of the displaced fluid is mg, where m = ρVdispl, so at greater depths, so the net force from the
surrounding fluid is upwards, just balancing
B = ρgVdispl the weight of the fluid in the marked region.
b If the fluid in the marked region is replaced
by another body, the buoyant force remains
unchanged, and equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid.

Worked example
B.24 Figure B.47 shows a floating rectangular platform made A h
out of wood of density 640 kg m!3. The fluid is water of
density 1000 kg m!3.
h
Calculate the fraction . d
d

Figure B.47

Let A denote the surface area of the wood. We have equilibrium, so weight equals buoyant force:
W=B
ρwood Adg = ρwaterA(d ! h)g

640d = 1000(d ! h)
1000h = 360d
h
= 0.36
d

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 B3.4 The ideal fluid
In previous subsections, we considered fluids at rest. We will now
examine fluids in motion. The motion of fluids is very complex. To
simplify the analysis, a number of assumptions about fluids are made.
These assumptions define an ideal fluid. This is a fluid whose flow is:
• Steady: At any fixed point in space, the fluid velocity does not
change with time. Steady flow is also called laminar flow.
• Incompressible: The density is the same everywhere in the fluid.
v∆ t • Non-viscous: A body moving through the fluid would feel no
resistive drag forces.
Consider an ideal fluid that moves. We may concentrate on a very
small bit of the fluid – a fluid element – and follow its motion. This
A
fluid element traces out a path as it moves (Figure B.48). We call this
Figure B.48 Streamlines and a flowtube.
path a streamline. The velocity of the fluid element is tangent to the
The velocity vectors are tangent to streamline. Streamlines cannot cross. A set of neighbouring streamlines
streamlines. forms a flowtube. A flowtube has streamlines as its boundary.

B3.5 The continuity equation

v
We know that the speed of water out of a garden hose increases if we
A use a finger to partially close the hose opening. This is a consequence
of the equation of continuity. Suppose we have a fluid that flows in a
a v Δt
tube of uniform cross-sectional area A (Figure B.49a). The volume of
fluid that can go through the dashed line in time Δt is Av Δt.
This volume will enter the region shaded darker blue. Since the fluid
slow fast is incompressible, an equal volume of fluid must leave the blue shaded
A2v2 Δt area during the same time in order to keep the density constant. If the
b A1v1 Δt
fluid flows in a tube of varying cross-sectional area (Figure B.49b), we
Figure B.49 a The volume of fluid that must have that:
enters a pipe in time Δt must also leave
in the same time from the other end. b A1v1 Δt = A2v 2 Δt ⇒ A1v1 = A2v 2
This implies that if the cross-sectional area
changes the speed must also change. So if the cross-sectional area decreases, the fluid speed must increase.

Worked example
B.25 Water comes out of a tap of cross-sectional area 1.5 cm 2. After falling a vertical distance of 6.0 cm, the
cross-sectional area of the water column has been reduced to 0.45 cm 2. Calculate the speed of the water as
it left the tap.

Let the required speed be v1. By the equation of continuity,

A1v1 = A2v 2
where v 2 is the speed after falling 6.0 cm. The water is falling freely under gravity and so:
v 22 = v12 + 2gh
Thus, A1v1 = A2 v12 + 2gh. Squaring, this gives:
A12 v12 = A22 (v12 + 2gh)
v12 (A12 ! A22) = 2A22 gh

2A22gh 2 × 0.452 × 9.8 × 0.060

v1 = = = 0.34 m s!1
A12 ! A22 1.52 ! 0.452

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B3.6 The Bernoulli equation Δ x2
v2 p2
The Bernoulli equation applies to the laminar flow of a fluid in a tube
of varying cross-sectional area and varying vertical height, such as the Δ x1 v1 z2
tube shown in Figure B.50.
This equation relates pressure, height and speed along a streamline. It p1
z1
states that:
Figure B.50 Diagram for demonstrating the
p1 + 12 ρv12 + ρgz1 = p2 + 12 ρv 22 + ρgz2 Bernoulli equation.

As we will see, this is a consequence of energy conservation.

In particular, if the height stays constant (z1 = z2) the equation states
that:

p1 + 12 ρv12 = p2 + 12 ρv 22

This shows that in those areas in the flow where the speed is high the
pressure is low, and vice versa.
To derive the Bernoulli formula, we start by noticing that the work
done by the net force is the change in the kinetic energy of the fluid:

Wnet = ΔE K

= 12 m(v 22 ! v12)

= 12 ρ ΔV(v 22 ! v12)

The net work on the fluid consists of the work done against gravity (its
weight) and the work associated with the pressure of the fluid. The work
done against gravity is

Wweight = !(mgz2 ! mgz1)

= !ρg ΔV(z2 ! z1)

To calculate the work associated with the pressure of the fluid, recall
that work is the product of force times the distance over which it acts.
The force on the left end of the volume of fluid in Figure B.50 is
F1 = p1A1, where A1 is the cross-sectional area of the tube there, and
the distance the fluid moves is ∆x1, so the work done at the left end
is F1 Δx1 = p1A1 Δx1 = p1 ΔV1. Likewise, at the right end the fluid does
work equal to p2 ΔV2, or we may say it has !p2 ΔV2 of work done on it.
But the amount of fluid that enters this section of the tube is the same
amount that leaves, so ΔV1 = ΔV2. The net work associated with the
pressure of the fluid is thus:

Wpressure = p1 ΔV ! p2 ΔV 1

Equating the total work done and the change in kinetic energy gives: h

p1 ΔV ! p2 ΔV ! ρg ΔV(z2 ! z1) = 12 ρ ΔV(v 22 ! v12 ) 2

Rearranging and cancelling ΔV gives the Bernoulli formula. A direct

Figure B.51 Fluid flowing out of a container.
application of the Bernoulli equation is the problem of the flow of a
Points 1 and 2 are connected by a streamline,
liquid out of a container. Figure B.51 shows a tank of liquid where a along which the Bernoulli equation may be
hole has been made in the side at a depth h below the liquid surface. applied.

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 Notice that both the surface and the hole are exposed to the atmosphere
and so the pressure there is atmospheric pressure, p0. The dashed line
shows a possible streamline joining the surface and the hole. Applying the
Bernoulli equation to the streamline joining 1 to 2, we find:

p1 + 12 ρv12 + ρgz1 = p2 + 12 ρv 22 + ρgz2

We measure heights from the level of the hole, so z1 = h and z2 = 0. The

surface has negligibly small speed (either because the surface is very large
or because the liquid is being replenished to keep h constant), so the
Bernoulli equation simplifies to:

p 0 + 0 + ρgh = p 0 + 12 ρv 22 + 0

The equation then gives:

v 2 = 2gh

for the speed at which the liquid leaves the hole.

Worked examples
B.26 Water of density 1000 kg m!3 flows in a horizontal pipe (Figure B.52). The radius of the pipe at its left end
is 65 mm and that at the right end is 45 mm. The water enters from the left end with a speed of 6.0 m s!1.
The pressure at the left end is 185 kPa. Calculate the pressure at the right end of the pipe, at a vertical
distance of 1.5 m above the left end.

1.5 m
v1 = 6.0 m s–1

p1 = 185 kPa

Figure B.52

We apply the Bernoulli equation: p1 + 12 ρv12 + ρgz1 = p2 + 12 ρv 22 + ρgz2. We have two unknowns, the speed and
pressure of the water at the right end. We use the equation of continuity to find the second speed:
A1v1 π(652) × 6.0
A1v1 = A2v 2 ⇒ v 2 = = 2 = 12.5 m s!1
A2 π(45 )
Going back to the Bernoulli equation, we now have

1 1
185 × 103 + × 103 × 6.02 + 0 = p2 + × 103 × 12.52 + 103 × 9.8 × 1.5
2 2

This gives 110 kPa for the pressure p2.

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 B.27 In a hydroelectric power plant (Figure B.53), water leaves a dam from a point 50 m beneath the surface.
It enters a pipe of radius 80 cm and is incident on a turbine through a pipe of radius 40 cm. Calculate a the
speed of the water as it hits the turbine, and b the pressure at point 2.

50 m

300 m

Figure B.53

a We consider a streamline beginning at 1 and ending at 3. The speed at 1 may be taken to be zero; the surface
area of the water is assumed large, so the surface does not move appreciably. At 1 and 3 the pressure is
atmospheric, since the water is exposed to the atmosphere. Therefore, from the Bernoulli equation,
p1 + 12 ρv12 + ρgz1 = p3 + 12 ρv 32 + ρgz3

patm + 0 + 103 × 9.8 × 350 = patm + 12 × 103 × v 32 + 0

v3 = 83 m s!1
b Consider a streamline beginning at 1 and ending at 2. The speed of the water at 2 can be found from the
continuity equation relating points 2 and 3:
A3v 3 π(402) × 83
A 2 v 2 = A 3v 3 ⇒ v 2 = = = 21 m s!1
A2 π(802)
From the Bernoulli equation again,
p1 + 12 ρv12 + ρgz1 = p2 + 12 ρv 22 + ρgz2

patm + 0 + 103 × 9.8 × 50 = p2 + 12 × 103 × 212 + 0

p2 = 3.7 × 105 Pa

B3.7 The Bernoulli effect

faster flowing air has lift
The classic application of the Bernoulli equation is to the motion of air lower pressure

past an aircraft wing. A wing shape (with a cross-section illustrated in

Figure B.54) is called an aerofoil. The figure shows streamlines as they section through
move below and above the aerofoil. wing (aerofoil)

Because of the shape of the wing, air flows faster above the wing airflow
slower flowing
than beneath it. The streamlines above the wing are closer together, air has higher pressure

indicating that the air there is moving faster. A flow tube above the Figure B.54 Fluid flows faster over the top
aerofoil would have a smaller area, and by the equation of continuity of the aerofoil than beneath it, giving rise to
the air must move faster. The larger speed above the aerofoil results in a a lifting force.

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 smaller pressure, so there is a net upward force on the aerofoil, a lifting
force. More precisely, from:

pover + 12 ρv 2over + ρgz = punder + 12 ρv 2under + ρgz

we have

punder ! pover = 12 ρv 2over ! 12 ρv 2under > 0

where we have neglected the ρgz terms, which are almost the same for a
thin aerofoil. The di%erence in pressure results in a lifting force equal to:

F = (punder ! pover)A = 12 ρ(v 2over ! v 2under)A

where A is the area of the aerofoil.

A similar e%ect occurs for air flowing past the sail of a sailboat. The
sail plays the role of an aerofoil, and the di%erence in speeds of the air on
the two sides of the sail gives a force on the sail that propels the sailboat.
The Bernoulli effect is often exploited in sports. Figure B.55 shows
v
a ball that has been set spinning as it was thrown. (The ball travels from
left to right so air is shown flowing from right to left.) A layer of air is
‘dragged along’ with the spinning surface of the ball. This, added to
the overall air flow from the ball’s translational motion, gives a total air
speed that is higher on the underside and lower on the top side. The
result is a net downward pressure on the ball, giving it an unexpectedly
curved path.
Figure B.56 shows a device known as a Pitot–Prandtl tube, which
F
can be used to measure the speed of flow of air past an object such as an
aircraft.
B.55 The ball spins clockwise as it moves
to the right. This means that the air flows
This is a thin tube with a small opening at the front, pointing in
faster beneath it, so the ball experiences a the direction of the aircraft’s motion. Air enters at the front hole at B
downward force F. and, essentially immediately, it is brought to rest. Using the Bernoulli
equation along streamline BA we have
moving air still
air pA + 12 ρairvA 2 = pB + 12 ρairvB2
B But vB = 0, so:
A
pA + 12 ρairvA 2 = pB + 0
h
We have neglected the ρgz terms, which are almost the same for A and
liquid of
density ρ
B. Rearranging the equation,

2(pB - pA)
Figure B.56 A Pitot–Prandtl tube used to vA = ρair
measure the flow of a fluid past an object
such as an aircraft. One leg of a liquid manometer is connected to the front hole of the tube
and the other leg to A (there are tiny holes on the sides of the tube). The
di%erence in pressure is measured by the height h between the columns
of the manometer: pB = pA + ρliquid gh. Hence:

2 ρliquid gh
v= ρair

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 Yet another application of the Bernoulli e%ect is the Venturi tube
(Figure B.57), which is also used to measure fluid flow speeds.

V v
density ρ

Figure B.57 A Venturi tube, which can be used to measure the flow of a fluid in a
pipe.

The constriction in the tube makes the fluid move faster there and so
the pressure drops. The wide and narrow parts of the tube are connected
to the two arms of a liquid manometer. Because of the di%erence in
pressure the two columns have a di%erence in height: pA = pB + ρliquid gh, Exam tip
so Δp = pA ! pB = ρliquid gh. From the Bernoulli equation, There is a lot of algebra in this
derivation and you must study
pA + 12 ρV 2 = pB + 12 ρv 2 it carefully. In an exam you
will most likely be guided in
and, from the equation of continuity, AV = av, where A and a are the such a derivation.
cross-sectional areas of the wide and narrow parts of the tube.
AV Notice that most fluid
Hence, v = . Substituting this into the Bernoulli equation, dynamics problems involve
a
the use of both the Bernoulli
1 1 A2V 2
pA + ρV 2 = pB + ρ 2 and the continuity equations.
2 2 a
In these equations ρ is the
and solving for V, the entry speed in the wide tube, we find:
density of the fluid that flows
1 A2 and ρliquid is the density of the
pA ! p B = ρ 2 ! 1 V 2
2 a liquid in the manometer.
2(pA ! pB)
V2=
A2
ρ !1
a2
2a2(pA ! pB)
2
V =
ρ(A 2 ! a 2)

2a2(pA ! pB)
V=
ρ(A 2 ! a 2)

2a2 Δp
=
ρ(A 2 ! a 2)

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 Worked example
B.28 In a particular Venturi tube, the wide and narrow parts of the tube have cross-sectional areas of 45 cm 2
and 25 cm 2, respectively. The pressure di%erence between the wide and narrow parts of the tube is 65 kPa.
Determine the speed of water flowing in the wide part of the tube and the volume flow rate in the tube.

This is a straightforward use of the formula just derived:

2a2 Δp 2 × 252 × 65 × 103

V= =
ρ(A 2 ! a 2) 103 × (452 ! 252)

= 7.6 m s!1
The volume flow rate is Q= VA = 7.6 × 45 × 10!4 = 3.4 m3 s!1

B3.8 Stokes’ law and viscosity

Stokes’ law states that a sphere falling through an ideal fluid would
experience no resistive force (other than the buoyant force). Similarly,
Exam tip
the propeller of a ship turning in an ideal fluid would exert no force on
A ball at rest in a fluid
the fluid, and consequently the reaction force on the propeller would be
undergoes constant collisions
zero. In a real fluid, there are of course forces in both cases.
with the molecules of the
One of the di%erences between ideal and real fluids is that real fluids
fluid. If the ball is falling in
have viscosity. Viscosity has to do with how a layer of the fluid a%ects
the fluid, the lower side of
the motion of neighbouring layers. Viscosity is measured in terms of a
the ball is moving into the
coefficient with units of Pa s.
molecules and the top side
A small sphere of radius r falling through a viscous fluid (Figure B.58)
is moving away from them.
experiences a resistive, or drag, force. For small velocities, the drag
This means that the lower
force is given by F = 6 πηrv, where v is the speed and η is the viscosity
side will have more collisions
coefficient.
per second and hence will
The net force on a small sphere released from rest in a viscous fluid is:
experience a greater force
upwards. The greater the Fnet = mg ! 6 πηrv ! ρgV
speed, the greater the number
of collisions; hence it is The final term is the buoyant force on the sphere. The sphere will
reasonable that drag force is accelerate downwards, but as the speed increases the drag force increases,
proportional to speed. and at a high enough speed the net force will become zero, and the
sphere will continue to move at constant speed. This speed is called
4 πr 3
the sphere’s terminal speed. Using m = ρbodyV and V = , this
3
speed is given by:
buoyant drag force
force mg ! 6 πηrv ! ρfluid gV = 0
ρbodyVg ! ρfluid gV
v=
6 πηr
mg
( ρbody ! ρfluid)2r 2g
=
9η
Figure B.58 A sphere falling through a fluid
experiences a drag force.

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