[Link].

com

Module-3

Lasers and Optical Fibers

Einstein‟s coefficients (expression for energy density).Requisites of a

[Link] for laser [Link], Construction and working ofCO 2
laser and semiconductor Laser. Applications of Laser – Laser welding,cutting and
drilling. Measurement of atmospheric [Link]–Principle of Recording
and reconstruction of images, applications ofholography.
Propagation mechanism in optical [Link] of
[Link] of optical fibers and modes of propagation.
Attenuation,Block diagram discussion of point to point communication, applications.

Content:
n

 Einsteins coefficients
 Essential requisites of a laser system
 Population inversion and metastable state
 Co2 laser
 Semiconductor laser
 Applications of laser
 Holography
 Numerical aperture
 attenuation

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Lasers

Introduction:

The word Laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation. It is a device which amplifies light. It has properties like Coherence,
Unidirectional, Monochromatic, Focusability, etc.

Interaction of an electromagnetic wave with matter requires certain

conditions. The interaction leads to transition of an atom or a molecule from one
energy state to another. If the transition is from lower state to higher state it absorbs
the incident energy. If the transition is from higher state to lower state it emits a part
of its energy.

If ∆E is the difference between the two energy levels,

Then ∆E = (E2 - E1) Joule

According to Max Planck, ∆E = h = (E2-E1)

 = (E2 - E1)/h Hz.

Three types of interactions, which are possible:

1) Induced absorption/ Stimulated absorption/absorption

2) Spontaneous emission
3) Stimulated emission.
i

Emission or Absorption takes through quantum of energy called photons. h is called

quantum energy or photon energy.

h = 6.626×10-34 Joules is Planck‟s constant and „‟ is the frequency.

1) Induced absorption/ Stimulated absorption/absorption:

Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by system as a result of
which the system is elevated from a lower energy state to a higher state, wherein the
difference in energy of the two states is the energy of the photon

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Consider the system having two energy states E1 and E2, E2 > E1. When a photon of
energy h is incident on an atom at level E1, the atom goes to a higher energy level by
absorbing the energy.

When an atom is at ground level(E1), if an electromagnetic wave of suitable frequency

 is applied to the atom, there is possibility of getting excited to higher level (E 2). The
incident photon is absorbed. It is represented as

Atom + Photon → Atom*

The frequency of the absorbed photon is

 = (E2-E1)/h.

The rate of absorption is proportional to N1U

d

Where „N1‟ is the number density of the lower energy state, „U ‟ is the energy
density of incident radiation.

Rate of induced absorption α N1U

Rate of absorption = B12N1U

Where „B12‟ is the proportionality constant called Einstein Coefficient of induced

absorption.

1. Spontaneous Emission:
The emission of a photon by the transition of a system from a higher energy state to a
lower energy state without the aid of an external energy is called spontaneous
[Link] „E1‟ and „E2‟ be two energy levels in a material, such that E2>E1. E1 is
ground level and E2 is the higher level. h=E2-E1 is the difference in the energy. The
atom at higher level (E2) is more unstable as compared to that at lower level (E 1).

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In spontaneous emission atom emits the photon without the aid of any external
energy. It is called spontaneous emission. The process is represented as

Atom* → Atom + Photon

The photons emitted in spontaneous emission may not have same direction and phase
similarities. It is incoherent.

Ex: Glowing electric bulbs, Candle flame etc.

Spontaneous emission depends on N2 which is the number of atoms present in the

o
higher level.

The rate of spontaneous emission α N2

The rate of spontaneous emission= A21N2

Where „A21‟ is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient of spontaneous

emission.

2. Stimulated Emission:
Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system under the influence of a
passing photon of just the right energy due to which the system transits from a higher
energy state to a lower energy state.

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The photon thus emitted is called stimulated photon and will have the same phase,
energy and direction of movement as that of the passing photon called the stimulation
photon.

Initially the atom is at higher level E 2. The incident photon of energy h forces
the atom to get de-excited from higher level E2 to lower level E1. i.e. h=E2–E1 is the
change in energy.

The incident photon stimulates the excited atom to emit a photon of exactly the same
energy as that of the incident photons. The emitted two photons have same phase,
frequency, direction and polarization with the incident photon. This kind of action is

p
responsible for lasing action.

Atom* + Photon → Atom + (Photon + Photon)

The rate of stimulated emission is directly proportional to N 2U, where „N2‟ is the
number of atoms present in the higher energy level and „U‟ is the energy density.

The rate of stimulated emission α N2Uv

The rate of stimulated emission = B21N2U,

where „B21‟ is the proportionality constant called Einstein‟s Coefficient of stimulated

emission.

Einstein‟s A & B Coefficients(Expression for energy density)

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N1 and N2 be the no
of atoms ( [Link] population) in the energy states E 1 and E2 respectively.

(Let Uν be the energy incident / unit volume). Let radiations of wavelength in

the range λ and λ + dλ be incident on the system of atoms.

Let be Uν the energy incident / unit volume of the system. Then Uνdλ
represents the energy density of frequency v let us consider.

1. The Case of Induced absorption:

In the case of induced absorption (when) an atom in the ground state. When
E2  E1
absorbs a radiation of frequency v = then it makes transients the level E 2.
h

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[Link] such absorption per unit time per unit volume is called Rate of
absorption.

The rate of absorption = B12N1Uν.

Where B12 is the proportionality constant called Einstein coefficient of

induced absorption.

2. Spontaneous Emission:

An atom in the excited state E2 makes transition to ground state E1 by the

emission of photon of frequency v. [Link] such spontaneous emissions per unit time
per unit volume is called Rate of spontaneous emission. Which is proportional to the
no. density in the higher energy state N2.

The rate of spontaneous emission α N2

Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2Uν.

Where A21 is called Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission.

n

3. Stimulated emission:

When a radiation of frequency v incident on an atom in the state E 2. Which

stimulate the atom to make downward transitionand causes the emission of stimulated
photons.

The rate of stimulated emission  N2.

Rate of stimulated emission = B21UvN2

Where B21 is the constant of proportionality called the Einstein coefficient of

stimulated emission. And N2 is the No, density in the higher energy state E 2. At
thermal equilibrium.

At thermal equilibrium,

Rate of absorption = (Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission)

B12N1U= A21N2 + B21N2U

U (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2

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A 21 N 2
U= (B
12 N 1 −B 21 N 2 )

A N2
i.e U= B 21 B 12
21 N 1 −N 2
B 21

A 1
=B 21 B 12 N 1 → (1)
21 −1
B 21 N 2

By Boltzmann‟s law,

E 2 −E 1
N2=N1 e− KT = N1 e-h/KT

i.e., N1/N2 = eh/KT

 
Eqn. (1) becomes   → (2)
A2 1  1 
U   

r
B2 1   h
  B1 2  kT


 
e  
1 
 B 

 21 

 
 
By Planck‟s law, 8h 3  1  → (3)
U   
c3   h 
   kT  

 

 e  1

 

Comparing equation (2) & (3)

A 21
= 8πh3/c3 &
B 12
=1 i.e. B12 = B21
B 21 B 21

The probability of induced adsorption is equal to the stimulated emission.

Because of the of identity ,the subscripts could be dropped and A21&B21 can be
represented as A & B. Therefore the equation for energy density at thermal
equilibrium is ,

 
 
A 1 
U    h  
B    kT  
 e  
1 
 
 

Conclusions of Einstein co-efficient:

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Dependence of nature of emission on frequency:

A 21
Consider B 21
= 8πh3/c3 → (1)

If A21 has high value, the probability of spontaneous emission is high. If B 21 has high
value, the probability of stimulated emission is high.

α 3
𝐀 𝟐𝟏
Further
𝐁𝟐𝟏

Since  = ΔE/h, in normal condition, the energy difference between the two levels E 1

c
and E2 is large

A 21
>> 1 or A21 >> B21
B 21

Thus the probability of spontaneous emission is more than the stimulated emission.

Condition for laser action:

1. Meta Stable State:It is the state in which the atoms or molecules stay for an
unusually long time of the order of 10-3 to 10-2 second.

This state plays an important role in lasing action. This property helps in achieving
population inversion,In excited state other than metastable atom stay of order of 10 -8
second.
2. Population Inversion:It is the state of the system at which the population of a
particular higher energy level is made to be greater than that of the lower energy
level.
Let E1, E2, E3 be the energy levels of the system E 3>E2>E1. E2 is the metastable
state of the system. Atoms get excited from the state E1 to E3 by means of external

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source and stay there for short time. These atoms undergo spontaneous transitions to
E2 and E1. The atoms at the state E2 stay for longer time. A stage is reached in which
the number of atoms at state E2 is more than the number of atoms at E 1 which is
known as population inversion.

Note:
Pumping:The process of producing population inversion is called pumping. It is the

u
process of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level. It can be
achieved by different methods.
a. Optical pumping: Using high intensity light or by operating flash tube.
Ex:Ruby Laser.
b. Electric Discharge: By applying very high potential between the plates of
discharge tube gas gets discharge leads to pumping. Ex: Argon Laser.
c. Atom-Atom Collision: Excited atoms collide with other types of atom and
transfer its energy to bring other atoms to excited state. Ex: He-Ne Laser.
d. Chemical Method: Exothermic chemical reactions liberate energy. This
liberated energy is used in pumping the atoms. Ex: Dye Laser.
e. Using Current : In semiconductor diode laser the tuning of current input
brings the charge carriers to achieve population inversion.
Requisites of a Laser System:
1) The excitation source for pumping action: It is the external source which
provides energy in an appropriate form for pumping the atoms to higher
energy levels.
2) Activemedium: The quantum system in which the pumping &lasing actions
occur, is called an active system.
3) Laser cavity: Is an active medium bounded by two mirrors. (Resonator)
Carbon dioxide (CO2) laser:

Construction:

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Carbon dioxide laser consists of a discharge tube having a diameter of 2.5cm and a
length of about 5m. The discharge tube is filled with a mixture of carbon dioxide,
nitrogen and helium gases in the ratio of 1:2:3 with traces H2of water vapour.

u
Pressures maintained are about 6 -17 torr.
Two optically plane mirrors, one fully silvered and other one half silvered are fixed
on either side of the tube normal to its [Link] is 100% reflectivity from the fully
silvered mirror and polarised laser light comes out from the half silvered mirror.
Working:

When a suitable voltage is applied across the two electrodes a glow discharge
of the gasses is initiated in tube .During the discharge many electrons are set free from
gas atoms and move towards positive electrode at which time they begin to collide
with N2and O2 molecules in their path, which excites N2 molecules are excited to the
first vibrational level V=1 which is a metastable state of N2 molecule

e1 +N2 ->e2 +N2*

Where e1 and e2 are the energy values of the electrons beforeand after the
collisionrespectevily,andN2and N2*are the energy values the N2molecules in the
ground state ie V=0 & V=1 state.

Likewise, many of the CO2 molecules will also be raised to their (001) energy state
(which is not metastable state).For N2molecules since V=1 is the metastable state ,the
molecules remain there for relatively long time which leads to increase of population
in V=1 [Link] that when N2 molecule in the metastable state collides with

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CO2 molecules in the ground state ,because of matching of energy levels, resonant
energy transfer takes place from the N2 to CO2 molecule .which elevated to the (001)
e

state whereas ,N2molecule returns to the ground state .

i .e, N2*+CO2 ->N2+CO2*

Where ,CO2 and CO2* are energies of CO2 molecule in the ground and excited state
respectively.

Thus the population of the (001) or E5 level of CO2 increases rapidly which leads the
population inversion. Let us denotes ground state,(010)(020)(100)and(001) states as
E1,E2,E3,E4 and E5 levels respectively as shown in figure. Once the population
inversion is established between E5level with respect to the E3& E4 levels then two
laser transition takes place within CO2 gas.

Those transition are

1. Transition from E5 to E4 which gives the radiation of wavelength 10.6μm,which is

comes under far infrared(IR) region.

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2. Another transition from E5 to E3 level which gives rise to radiation of wavelength

9.6μm which is also comes under far IR region.

The CO2 molecules in the E2 level undergo collision with He & H 2O vapour
molecules efficiently & come down to the ground state.CO2 laser operates with an
efficiently of 30% power output of few kilo watts can be continuously maintained in
a medium.

Gallium-Arsenide Laser: Semiconductor laser:

A Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated p-n junction device that

emits coherent light when it is forward biased. The wavelength of the emitted photon

p
depends upon the activation energy of the crystal.

Construction: A schematic diagram of semiconductor laser is as shown in the figure.

The gallium arsenide laser diode is a single crystal of GaAs consists of heavily doped
P-N sections. The n-section formed by doping of tellurium and P-section formed
doping with zinc and doping concentration is very high is of the order of 10 17 to
1019atoms/[Link] overall size of the diode is very small and each of its side is of the
order of 1mm.

The p-n junction layer of the width varying 1μm to 100μm .Its depending upon the
diffusion and temperature conditions that exist at the time of fabrications

Cross sectional view of p-n junction diode laser.

A pair of parallel planes of the crystal are polished at right angles to the p-n layer
.theseplanes play the role of reflecting mirrors. These planes provides sufficient
reflection to sustain the lasing action through feedback. The other two remaining sides
perpendicular to the junctionare roughened to suppress reflections of photons ,so that

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they will not develop the lasing action. The end surfaces of the p and n sections
parallel to the plane of the junction are contact with electrodes through which forward
bias voltage is applied.

Working: The energy band diagram of heavily doped pn-junction is as shown

unbiased condition. At thermal equilibrium, the Fermi level is uniform across the
junction. Because of very high doping on n-side, Fermi level is pushed into the
conduction band and electrons occupy the portion of the conduction band lying below
the Fermi level. On P-side, the Fermilevel lies within the valence band and holes
occupy the portion of the valence band that lies above the Fermi level. When the
junction is forward biased electrons and holes are injected into the junction region in
high concentrations. At low forward current, the electron-holes recombination results
in spontaneous emission of photons and the junction acts as a LED. As the forward
current is increased gradually and when it reaches a threshold value the carrier
concentration in the junction region there will be large concentrations of electrons
within the band. As a result condition of population inversion is attained in the
narrow region. This narrow zone in which population inversion occurs is called as an
active region, at that stage a photon emitted spontaneously triggers stimulated
e

emission. This stimulated electron-hole recombination produces coherent radiation.

Energy level diagram of p-n junction diode laser

(a) Before biasing (b) After biasing.

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The stimulated electron-hole recombination causes emission of coherent radiation of

very narrow bandwidth. At room temperature, GaAs laser emits light of wavelength
9000A0 and GaAsP laser radiates at 6500A0.

The wavelength of the emitted laser beam is

hC
= Where h – Planck‟s const.
Eg
Advantages of semiconductor laser:
1. They are compact
2. They are efficient
3. They are highly stable
Properties of laser:

1. Coherence: The emitted radiation after getting triggered is in phase with the

o
incident radiation.
Coherence is of two types
a. Temporal or time coherence: In a source like sodium lamp, two waves
of slightly different wavelengths are given out. These waves have
slightly different coherence time (t). A definite phase relationship
exists between the two types of waves. This is known as coherence of
the beam.
The coherence length L is determined by the relation
L  c.t
b. Spatial Coherence: A laser beam is said to possess spatial coherence if
the phase difference of the waves crossing the two points on a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the beam is time
independent. Spatial Coherence is also termed as transverse or lateral
coherence.

2. Monochromaticity: The laser beam is highly monochromatic than any other

radiations.
3. Unidirectionality: Laser beam travels in only one direction. It can travel long
distance without spreading.
4. Focusability: A laser beam can be focused to an extremely fine spot.

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5. Intensity: The power output of the laser may vary from few milliwatts to few
kilowatts. But this energy is concentrated in a beam of very small cross
section. The intensity of laser beam is approximately given by
2
 10 
I    P Wm2

Where p is the power radiated by laser.
In case of He-Ne laser, = 6328x10-10 m and P= 10x 10 -3W,
the corresponding intensity is
2
 1 
I  10 
100  103  2.5  1011 Wm2
 6328  10 
To obtain the above intensity from tungsten bulb, the temperature would have
to be raised to 4.6x106K. The normal operating temperature of the bulb is
approximately 2000K.
Application of laser:

1. Laser welding: Laser beam is allowed to fall on the surface to be welded. The
t
beam is absorbed and the surface starts melting due to the heat generated. The
reflectivity and thermal diffusivity of the material are the important factors of
welding. The reflectivity is more, the energy released is less. To increase the energy,
the surface is coated with either cupric oxide or graphite. During the melting, the
impurities accumulate on the surface of the material and it becomes a homogeneous
solid structure and forms a stronger joint on cooling.
The laser welding is very narrow and accurate. In laser welding, laser does not
have any physical contact with the material to be welded. Hence no contamination
occurs. The properties of the material do not change due to welding. Laser welding
can be carried out in normal workshop environment.

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2. Laser cutting: When the laser is allowed to focus onto a tiny spot, the metal gets
vaporized. There will be no physical distortion. CO2 laser is used for the laser cutting.
The laser cutting depends upon the input power for the laser beam and inversely
proportional to the thickness of the material. It also depends on the nature of the gas
used with the laser beam. Oxygen is commonly used gas. The gas is flown coaxially
with the beam. The combustion of the gas helps the metal to get vaporized and it
reduces the laser power which is required for cutting. Laser cuts the material
accurately.

3. Drilling: Laser beam can drill the hardest material or a brittle material with a hole
e

of diameter 10µm. Laser is used to make holes in gemstones, ceramics, without any
damage. Very small dimensional holes can be made by using lasers. No
contamination occurs as there is no physical contact.

4. Measurement of pollutants in the atmosphere:There are various types of

pollutants in the atmosphere which include nitrogen, oxides of carbon monoxide,
sulphur dioxide and a number of particulate matters. In conventional technique,
samples of the atmosphere are collected at desired heights and the chemical analysis
is carried out to find out the composition of the pollutants. Whatever the data
obtained in this method is not a real time data. Whereas in the laser technique, the
laser senses the atmospheric density variation by scanning the required local region
and electronic data processes yield the data, which is a real time data.

In the application of laser for measurement of pollutant, laser is made use of the
way as RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) system is used. Hence it is often
referred as a LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technique. In the LIDAR system,

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the transmitting part consists of pulsed laser and the receiving part consists of a
concave mirror, photo detector and a data processor.

m
co
p.
ou
gr
When measurements are carried out, the laser beam undergoes scattering at places
ts
in the atmosphere where there is congestion due to higher concentration of particulate
en

matter. The back scattered light is received by the concave mirror. The distance of
congestion from the measuring station is calculated on the basis of time delay
between the pulse emission and reception of the back scattered light. By scanning the
ud

space around the station, the concentration of pollutants can be mapped for different
vertical section of the atmosphere. This method cannot provide any information
st

regarding the nature of the scattering particles. As this technique doesn‟t provide the
ity

information regarding the nature of the scattering particles following two more
techniques are followed.
.c
w

1. Absorption Technique:
w
w

Collected Sample

72
 [Link]

The laser beam is passed through the sample collected from the atmosphere. The
transmitted beam is recorded with a detector. While the beam passes through the
sample, it undergoes absorption of various degrees depending upon the presence of
exact type of chemical substance that the particulate comprise of. Depending upon
the characteristic absorption pattern observed in the recording, the composition of the
atmospheric pollutants could be determined.

[Link] Back Scattering: Since laser is highly monochromatic, we expect to see only

o
one line in the spectrum. But due to Raman scattering in the spectrum, several lines
of low intensity will be seen symmetrically on either side of the incident line. There
wavelength values will be close to that of the incident light. These additional spectral
lines are called as side bands. Different gasses produce different side bands. The
shifts in frequencies are termed as Raman shifts. Thus by observing the
Ramanspectrum of the back scattered light in the gas sample one can assess the
composition of the pollutants.

Raman Back Scattered Spectrum

Holography

Holography is the technique of producing 3-dimentional image of an object on

2-dimentional recording aid, by the phenomenon of interference. A and B are two
identical or coherent beams incident on photosensitive surface at different angles. Due
to interference effect, interference fringes are recorded on developing the
photographic plate.
A

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 [Link]

Principle of Hologram construction:

Light wave reflected from an object are characterized by their intensity

(square of amplitude) and phase. When both intensity and phase attributes of the
wave coming from three dimensional object is recorded on a photographic plate, it is
called construction of hologram. When recorded photographic plate (hologram) is
illuminated by a coherent light source, the three dimensional image of the original
object is formed. This formation of image is known as reconstruction process.

Recording phase variation in a Hologram:

In recording hologram of an object a photographic plate is placed in front of

an object at a suitable distance. Consider a coherent light incident on the object. The
light reflected from two nearby points on the object travel slightly different distances
in reaching the photographic plate due to variation in depth on the object. Thus the
two wave fronts arrive at the photographic plate in a slightly different phase. Hence
the light reflected from different points on the object will have different phases and
interfere with the reference beam. The fringes recorded in the hologram carry
information regarding the phase difference.
e

In holography there are two phases:

1) Recording
2) Reconstruction of the image.
Recording has two methods

1) Wave front division technique.

2) Amplitude division technique.
1) Recording of the image of an object by wave front division technique
Expanded coherent laser beam from the laser source is obtained. A portion of it is
made to incident on the mirror and other portion is made to incident on the object as
shown in the fig.

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Photographic plate is placed at a suitable position so that it receives the light

reflected from both the mirror and the object. The light reflected from the mirror form
a plane wavefront. It is called reference beam. The light reflected from each point on
the object form a spherical wavefront. It is called object beam. Thus the interference
effects of the two beams are recorded on the photographic plate.
As the spherical wave intersect the plane wave in circular zones, the
interference pattern consists of concentric circular rings having constructive and
destructive interference. It is called Gabor Zone plate.

Hologram consists of number of such zone plates. The centre of each is displaced
e

from the other. In the recorded pattern the neighbouring zones overlap each other and
become apparent, once the film is developed. It is called a hologram.

2) Recording the image of an object by amplitude division technique:

Expanded coherent laser beam from the laser source is obtained. It is made to incident
on the beam splitter. The beam splitter reflects the portion of the light which is
incident on the mirror. The transmitted light from the beam splitter is incident on the
object. The reflected plane wavefront from the mirror and reflected spherical
wavefronts from different points on the object undergoes interference on the
photographic plate kept at a suitable place. The interference fringes are recorded on

75
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the photographic plate. The developed photographic plate becomes the hologram of
the object.

Reconstruction of the image from the hologram:

Original Laser beam is made to incident on the hologram in the same direction
as the reference beam was incident on it at the time of recording. The beam undergoes
refraction in the hologram. Secondary wavelets originating from each constituting
zone plate interfere constructively and generate real image on the transmission side
and virtual image on the incident side.

Applications of holography:
1) Holography Microscopy:Large field of view with better resolution can be obtained
e

using holography. In this technique, a grating divider is used to produce the object
beam and the reference beam. First, the object beam is allowed to illuminate and the
diffracted light is allowed to pass through a normal microscope. The reflected
reference beam interferes with the object beam and the hologram is obtained. It is
difficult to get the resolution by the microscope. The resolution of the holographic
emulsion and coherence of the reference beam gives the depth of the field.
2) Size of the Particle:The fog like particle does not remain for a long time. It is very
difficult to focus them. Holography can be used for particle analysis. The hologram of
the particles in the volume is made and the reconstruction of hologram gives the idea
of the size and geometry of the particle.

3) Holographic diffraction grating:The holography is based on the principle of

interference. Interference pattern gives alternate dark and bright band. This method
produces the rulings more accurate than the normal method.

4) Holographic Interferometry:This technique is used to measure vibration

amplitudes and minute distortions of objects. The hologram of the stressed object is

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allowed to illuminate with a monochromatic light. During the reconstruction of

hologram, the light reflected from the object interferes with the light reflected from
the stressed object. It produces dark and bright interference pattern. By using this
technique, we can measure the accurate changes in the body.

5)ROM (Read Only Memory) Devices:Since large amount of data can be stored,
holograms are used in ROM devices.

Optical Fibers

Total Internal Reflection:

When a ray of light travels from denser to rarer medium it bends away from
the normal. As the angle of incidence increases in the denser medium, the angle of
refraction also increases. For a particular angle of incidence called the “critical
angle”, the refracted ray grazes the surface separating the media or the angle of
refraction is equal to 90°. If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle,
the light ray is reflected back to the same medium. This is called “Total Internal
Reflection”.
In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is
e

reflected back.
XX1 is the surface separating medium of refractive index n1 and medium of
refractive index n2, n1 > n2.
AO and OA1 are incident and refracted rays. θ1 and θ2 are angle of incidence
and angle of refraction, θ2 > θ1. For the ray BO, θc is the critical angle. OB1 is the
refracted ray which grazes the interface. The ray CO incident with an angle greater
than θc is totally reflected back along OC1.

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From Snell‟s law,

n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2

For total internal reflection,

θ1=θc and θ2=90°

n1sinθc = n2 (because sin90°=1)

θc= sin-¹(n2/n1)

In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy.

The entire energy is returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total internal

u
reflection.

Optical Fibers:

They are used in optical communication. It works on the principle of Total

internal reflection(TIR).

Optical fiber is made from transparent dielectrics. It is cylindrical in shape.

The inner cylindrical part is called as core of refractive index n1. The outer part is
called as cladding of refractive index n2, n1>n2. There is continuity between core and
cladding. Cladding is enclosed inside a polyurethane jacket. Number of such fibers is
grouped to form a cable.

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The light entering through one end of core strikes the interface of the core and
cladding with angle greater than the critical angle and undergoes total internal
reflection. After series of such total internal reflection, it emerges out of the core.
Thus the optical fiber works as a waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very sharp
bends in the fiber because at sharp bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal
reflection.

Angle of Acceptance and Numerical Aperture:

Consider a light ray AO incident at an angle „θ0‟ enters into the fiber. Let „θ1‟
be the angle of refraction for the ray OB. The refracted ray OB incident at a critical
angle (90˚- θ1) at B grazes the interface between core and cladding along BC. If the
e

angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, it undergoes total internal reflection.
Thus θ0 is called the waveguide acceptance angle and sinθ0 is called the numerical
aperture.

Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the medium, core and cladding
respectively.

From Snell‟s law,

nosinθ0 = n1sinθ1 → (1)

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From Snell‟s law,

At B the angle of incidence is (90 - θ1)

n1sin(90-θ1) = n2sin90

n1cosθ1 = n2

cosθ1 = n2 / n1 → (2)

From eqn (1)

n1
Sin0  sin 1
n0

𝑛1
= 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 → (3)
𝑛𝑜

Using eqn (2) in (3)

n1 n22
Sin0  1 2
n0 n1

𝑛 12 −𝑛 22
= → (4)
𝑛𝑜

The surrounding medium is air, no = 1

t

Sin0  n12  n22

Where sinθi is called numerical aperture.

N.A= 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

Therefore for any angle of incidence equal to θi equal to or less than θ0, the incident
ray is able to propagate.

θi< θ0

Sin i  Sin0

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𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 < 𝑛12 − 𝑛22

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 < 𝑁. 𝐴is the condition for propagation.

Fractional Index Change:

“It is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and cladding
to the refractive index of the core of an optical fiber”.

n1  n2
Δ=
n1

Relation between N.A and Δ:

𝑛 1 −𝑛 2
Consider Δ = 𝑛1

n1  n2  n1
s
We have

N.A = 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2

Considering, n1≈n2

= 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 𝛥𝑛1

𝑁. 𝐴 = 2𝑛12 𝛥

𝑁. 𝐴 = 𝑛1 2𝛥

Increase in the value of Δ increases N.A

It enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot be increased very
much because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.

V-number:

The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by

a parameter called V-number.

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If the surrounding medium is air, then

𝜋𝑑
V= 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜆

Where „d‟ is the core diameter, n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and
cladding respectively, „λ‟ is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.

𝜋𝑑
V= 𝑁𝐴
𝜆

If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,

𝜋𝑑 𝑛 12 −𝑛 22
V=
𝜆 𝑛0

For V >1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by, number of modes

o
≈ V2/2.

Types of optical fibers:

In an optical fiber the refractive index of cladding is uniform and the refractive index
of core may be uniform or may vary in a particular way such that the refractive index
decreases from the axis, radially.

Following are the different types of fibers:

1. Single mode fiber

2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber

Single mode fiber: Refractive index of core and cladding has uniform value; there is
an increase in refractive index from cladding to core. They are used in submarine.

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2. Step index multimode fiber: It is similar to single mode fiber but core has large
n
diameter. It can propagate large number of modes as shown in figure. Laser or LED is
used as a source of light. It has an application in data links.

3. Graded index multimode fiber: It is also called GRIN. The refractive index of
core decreases from the axis towards the core cladding interface. The refractive
index profile is shown in figure. The incident rays bends and takes a periodic path
along the axis. The rays have different paths with same period. Laser or LED is
used as a source of light. It is the expensive of all. It is used in telephone trunk
between central offices.

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m
co
p.
ou
Signal distortion in optical fibers:

gr
The propagation of a signal through the optical fiber involves total internal
reflection of light rays many times. Further, the rays are reflected at various angles.
ts
The rays reflected at higher angles travel greater distances than the rays reflected at
en

lower angles. As a result, all the rays do not arrive at the end of the fiber
simultaneously and the light pulse broadens as it travels through the fiber. Since the
output pulse does not match with the input pulse, the signal is said to be distorted.
ud

If white light is used instead of monochromatic light, another kind of

st

distortion occurs. Since radiation of different wavelengths has different velocities,

they do not arrive at the output simultaneously. This distortion is called chromatic
ity

dispersion.
.c

The signal distortion is quite considerable in multimode step index fibers. In

graded index fibers, the light travels with different velocities in different parts of the
w

core as the refractive index varies radially along the core. The rays travel faster near
w

the interface. Hence all the rays arrive at the output almost at the same time and the
w

signal distortion is reduced. In a single mode step index fiber the distortion is less than
that in multimode step index fibers.

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Signal attenuation in optical fibers:

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels through a fiber. It is

expressed in decibel/kilometer [db/km]. A fiber with lower attenuation will allow
more power to reach its receiver than a fiber with higher attenuation. If P in is the input
power and Pout is the output power after passing through a fiber of length „L‟, the
mean attenuation constant or coefficient „α‟ of the fiber, in units of db/km is given by

10 p 
  log10  out  dB/km
L  pin 

Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.

Attenuation coefficient.
When light travels in a material medium there will always loss in intensity with
distance travelled .such a loss in intensity obeys a law is called Lamberts law. or
There is loss in its intensity with distance travelled. The intensity loss obeys
Lambert‟s law i.e. from Lambert‟s law.
- dP
dL
αP P  initial intensity
L  distance propagated in the medium
-ve sign confirms that it is decrease in power
dP
− =αP  (1)
d

dL
Where α - attenuation coefficient or fibre attenuation coefficient or attenuation or
fibre loss.
dP
P
= - αdL
Integrating both sides,
dp
= -α dl
p

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑃 L
𝑃 𝑖𝑛
= −𝛼 o
dL Where Pout→ intensity of light received at output
𝑃
Pin → intensity of light launched at input
P
[𝑙n P]P out
in
=- α[L]Lo

P out
ln = -L
P in

1 P out
α = - ln
L P in

As the dependence of loss of intensity is logarithmic in nature, α also takes the

unit as Bel [as sound intensity variation is also logarithmic whose unit is also Bel]

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1 P out
α = - L log10 Bel/Unit length
P in

As Bel is larger unit, α is expressed in decibel / kilometer (dB/km)

1 P out
α = - L log10 10dB / km
P in

10
α = - log10
P out
dB / km
𝐿 P in

Note : * Pin & Pout expressed in watt

* L in km
Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.

Type of Attenuation in an Optical fiber:

[Link]:- Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron,

s
chromium, cobalt and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of. During
signal processing photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms. The atoms are
excited and de-excite by emitting photons of different characteristics. Hence it is a
loss of energy. The other impurity such as hydroxyl ions (OH) causes significant
absorption loss. The absorption of photons by fiber material itself is called intrinsic
absorption.

2. Scattering: When the wavelength of the photon is comparable to the size of the
particle then the scattering takes place. Because of the non-uniformity in
manufacturing, the refractive index changes with length leads to a scattering. This
type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. It is inversely proportional to the
fourth power of wavelength. Scattering of photons also takes place due to trapped gas
bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of manufacturing.

3. Radiation losses: Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and microscopic
bends.

Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature
provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that specification of radius of

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curvature, the light ray incident on the core cladding interface will not satisfy the
condition of TIR. This causes loss of optical power.

Microscopic bending: Optical power loss in optical fibers is due to non-uniformity of

the optical fibers when they are laid. Non uniformity is due to manufacturing defects
and also lateral pressure built up on the fiber. The defect due to non-uniformity
(microbendings) can be overcome by introducing optical fiber inside a good
strengthen polyurethane jacket.

Application of optical fiber:( Point to point communication in OF)

Electrical
Voice analog Optical
Coder
form of voice transmitter
Transmitting
end

Electrical Photo
Voice Decoder
analog detector
Receiving
end

Point of Point optical fibre communication system

A fiber optic communication system is very much similar to a traditional

communication system and has three major components. A transmitter converts
electrical signals to light signals, an optical fibre transmits the signals and a receiver
captures the signals at the other end of the fiber and converts them to electrical
s

signals.
The transmitter consists of a light source supported by necessary drive circuits.
First voice is converted into electrical signals using a transducer. It is digitized (
converted to binary electrical signals) using a coder. The digitized signal, which
carries the voice information, is fed to an optical transmitter. The light source in
optical transmitter (LED or laser diode) emits modulated light, which is transmitted
through optical fiber. The light emitted by the source is in the IR range with a
wavelength of 850nm, 1300nm or 1550nm.
On the other end the modulated light signal is detected by a photo detector is
amplified and is decoded using a decoder. The output is fed to a suitable transducers
to convert it into an audio or video form.

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Advantages of optical communication system:

1) It carries very large amount of information in either digital or analog form due
to its large bandwidth.
2) The materials used for making optical fiber are dielectric nature. So, it doesn‟t
produces or receives any electromagnetic and R-F interferences.
3) Fibers are much easier to transport because of their compactness and
lightweight.
4) It is easily compatible with electronic system.
5) It can be operated in high temperature range.
6) It does not pick up any conducted noise.
7) Not affected by corrosion and moisture.
8) It does not get affected by nuclear radiations.
9) No sparks are generated because the signal is optical signal.

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