MODULE 5: DESIGNING A QUALITATIVE random means.

The results obtained are

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY unbiased.
Different Types of Non-Probability Sampling
LESSON 1: Qualitative Design
Methods:
A. PHENOMENOLOGY
A. PURPOSEFUL SAMPLING – they have
 This type examines the human experiences
the desired characteristics, recruits
through the descriptions provided by the
specific people based on the
people involved.
characteristics and knowledge of the
 It is used to examine topics will less
study.
information.
B. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING – selectively
B. ETHNOGRAPHY
with little or no planning involved.
 This involves data gathering and analysis of
Assumes that the population units are
certain people belonging to a cultural group.
alike, so any unit can be chosen as a
 According to Agar (1986), ethnography is
sample.
“encountering alien words and making sense
C. QUOTA SAMPLING – with specific
of them”. It shows the actions and practices of
number of respondents or quota is
an ethnic group relevant to other ordinary
attained, satisfying the intended sample
people.
size that will be taken from the population.
C. GROUNDED THEORY
D. SNOWBALL SAMPLING – identifies one
 Theory is developed based on the collected
person or two people to be included in the
data.
study and the initial participants will help
 According to Jacelon and O’dell (2005), an
identify the additional respondents.
application grounded theory study in the field
of medicine is very significant to the doctors to To choose the appropriate sampling technique in
understand the processes of patients learning the study, it is important to follow the guidelines:
how to manage health problems.
D. HISTORICAL STUDY 1. Define the target population – based on
 It is about collecting, evaluating, and the objective of the research study.
synthesizing the data from the past. 2. Identify the characteristics of the target
E. CASE STUDY population – determine the characteristics
 It is an in-depth or intensive examination of a of the target population to choose quickly.
subject or a group or people.
 Every aspect of the subject’s life and history is 3. Choose the sampling technique applicable
analyzed to determine the patterns and to the study- after determining the size,
causes of the behavior (Cherry, 2021) choose the sampling technique that
F. ACTION RESEARCH applies to the study.
 Seek action to improve practice and study the
effects of the action taken (Streubert &
Carpenter, 2022) LESSON 3: Writing the Qualitative Research
 This type can be also qualitative or mixed Methodology
methods.
A. SURVEYS – gathering information from a
sample of people that will generalize the
results of the population.
LESSON 2: Sampling Procedures in
Qualitative Research There are different types of survey that can be
employed:
Non-Probability Vs. Probability Sampling Method
 Face to face survey
 NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING is a method
 Telephone survey
of selecting a sample from a population
 Paper and pen survey
through a subjective method. The result
 Computer/Online survey
obtained are biased.
B. INTERVIEWS – conversation when one
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING is a method
asks questions (interviewer) and the other
wherein the sample from a population has an
answers the questions (interviewee)
equal opportunity to be selected through
 Structured – prior to the interview and
have a limited set of response categories.
  Semi-Structured – developed an LESSON 5: Writing Qualitative Research
interview guide or a list of questions that Methodology
need to covered during the interview.
A. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH –
 Unstructured – no specific guidelines,
identify the qualitative design applicable in
restrictions, and predetermined questions
the study.
or list of options.
B. Descriptions of Methods of Data
C. FOCUS GROUPS DISCUSSION – an in-
Collection:
depth data collection method that brings
 Explain in full detail the method to be used
together a homogeneous group or
to conduct the research
respondents to discuss a topic.
 Identify the tools, procedures, and
Respondents are asks about their
materials to be used in data gathering
perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, opinions or
 Criteria to be used in choosing the
ideas towards a specific topic.
participants
D. DIRECT OBSERVATIONS – collecting
 Include the description of where, when,
evaluative information in which the
and how the interview or focus group
evaluator watches the subject in his or her
discussion will be conducted.
usual environment without alteration. Also
C. DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD OF
known as observational study.
ANALYSIS – detailed description on how
E. DOCUMENTS AND RECORDS – this
the method will be conducted (when- date
method examines the existing data
of coverage performing the interview or
available such as databases, minutes of
survey, where- the place where the survey
the meeting, reports, newsletters, financial
or interview will be held, how – instrument
records… etc. This is an inexpensive
or mode of survey or interview to be
approach to gather information, but the
conducted)
completeness of the data is not assured.
D. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS –
researcher must follow ethical
considerations to ensure reliability,
LESSON 4: Qualitative Data Analysis
fairness and respect to the respondents.
Techniques
 Respecting the rights to privacy of the
A. CONTENT ANALYSIS
respondents
 Analyze the content and its features. It is to
 Voluntary participation of the respondents,
quantify qualitative information by sorting data
has the right to revoke his participation in
and comparing different pieces of information
the process
to summarize it into useful information.
 Must give their consent to join
 Evaluate patterns within a piece of content or
 Data confidentiality as well as their
across multiple pieces of content
demographic information must be
B. NARRATIVE ANALYSIS
practices
 It involves listening to people’s narrative and
analyzing what it means.
 Understand participants as they construct
stories from their own experiences.
C. DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
 This explores the meanings produced by
language use and communications, the
contexts and the processes of these
meanings.
 It aims to cause social change or achieve a
goal.
D. FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS
 It is a qualitative method that is suited for
applied policy research.
 It is a prescriptive method that can create new
theories.
 MODULE 6: COLLECTING DATA THROUGH Structured: It can be used to get a large sample
INTERVIEW AND OBSERVATION of the target population. It can be easily
replicated. It generates reliable results and is
LESSON 1: Collecting Data Through Interview easier to organize and analyze.
INTERVIEW Semi Structured: It is flexible structure type of
interview. Reliable qualitative data could be
 It is one of the data collection tools that you
collected.
can use in writing qualitative research.
 Method done to collect in-depth information on Unstructured: The researchers develop rapport
people’s opinions, thoughts, experiences, and with the respondents that may lead to gaining
feelings. insights in detail.
 It involves interviewer, who organizes the
D. DISADVANTAGES
process of conversation and asks the
questions to the respondents, and an Structured: The scope of assessment is only
interviewee, who responds to the questions based on the questions
given by the interviewer.
 Usually conducted face to face and are Semi Structured: Organizing and comparing
generally controlled by the interviewer. answers to open-ended questions will be difficult
 Advancement of technology can be conducted Unstructured: The interview session may take
over the phone and through online much longer than expected
teleconferencing applications.
 Issues requires complex questioning and E. USES
considerable probing/searching.
Structured: It is typically used in surveys
 More profound understanding of social
phenomena than using surveys Semi Structured: It is useful in complex issues to
 Exploring sensitive topics, where participants explore, deepen understanding, and clarify
may not want to talk about such issues openly answers to questions
Different Types of Interviews: Unstructured: It is useful to develop and
understand culture, experience, or setting that has
A. DEFINITION
not been fully explored yet
Structured: The interviewer asks a set of
standard, predetermined questions
Basic Rules in item construction for a
Semi Structured: The interviewer uses a set of
questionnaire:
predetermined questions, and the respondents
answer in their own words 1. Use statements which can be interpreted the
same by all the respondents.
Unstructured: The interviewer has no specific
2. Use statements where respondents that have
guidelines, restrictions, predetermined questions,
different opinions or traits will give different
or list of options
answers.
B. CHARACTERISTICS 3. Think of having an open answer category after
a list of possible answers.
Structured: There should only be little variation in 4. Use only one aspect of the construct you are
responses and there are only few open-ended interested in per item.
questions in the interview guide. 5. Use positive statements and avoid negatives
Semi Structured: Open-ended questions in the or double negatives.
questionnaire would help the researchers develop 6. Refrain from making assumptions about the
and understand the topic further. respondents
7. Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily
Unstructured: The researchers develop the understandable for all educational levels
questions based on their understanding of the 8. Observe correct spelling, grammar and
topic but are still open to changes based on the punctuation in the questionnaire
answers of the respondents. 9. Avoid items that contain more than one
question per item.
C. ADVANTAGES
10. Ask questions that are not biased or even A. CONTROLLED OBSERVATION
leading the participant toward an answer.  Uses a standardized procedure, assigns a
certain location and time where the
A qualitative interview can be conducted with the observation will take place
following steps:  Participants are randomly allocated to
1. Determine the topic and objective of the different independent variable groups
study. assigned by the researcher
2. Identify and approach the  Researcher will observe the behavior of the
participants/interviewee. respondents and classify them into distinct
3. Seek approval and permission to conduct categories
interview.  Used in experimental research
4. Arrange a schedule of interview.  Can easily be replicated by other researchers
5. Conduct the interview proper. using the same observation parameters
6. Record the interview  Data obtained from this type of observation
7. Organized and analyze the collected data are easier to analyze
• Face to face administration  One weakness of this type of observation is
• Paper and pencil that participants can behave differently since
• Computerized/online questionnaire they are aware that they are being observed.
 It needs a controlled facility wherein the
Some pointers that should or should not be respondents will be gathered and observed
followed when conducting an interview:  A classic example of controlled observation is
1. Explain clearly the purpose of the the Dement and Kleitman study about the
interview. relation of eye movements during sleep to
2. Ensure that the interview questions are dream activity
clear and easy to understand B. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
3. Start the interview with neutral questions  Directly observing the subject in their natural
to facilitate free flow of information setting
4. Ask question one at a time, and avoid  Will record all the relevant observed behavior
rushing the interviewee to respond. Give  Allows researchers to study behavior that
them time to think and construct their cannot be manipulated in a laboratory setting
thoughts. due to ethical considerations
5. Avoid assuming and judging the answers  One weakness of this type of observation is
of the interviewee that the subject might behave differently if
6. Avoid pitching in irrelevant discussion. they know they being observed and studied.
This may mislead respondents from the  The observation of subjects is limited only to a
focus. small population and will not be a
7. Avoid giving your opinion or commenting representative sample for the whole. Thus, it
on the response of the interviewee will be difficult to generalize for the whole
8. Avoid unnecessary body gestures while population.
conducting the interview because they  One famous example of naturalistic
might distract the respondent observation is the study of Jane Goodall
about chimpanzees in their natural
environment in East Africa
C. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
LESSON 2: Collecting Data Through  The researcher becomes part of the context
Observation being observed
What is an observation?  It is a way of learning the perspective as well
as the culture of population being studied
A way to gather data by watching people, events,  Data observed can be used to gain an
or noting physical characteristics in their natural understanding of the physical, social,
setting. Observations can be overt (subjects know behavioral, cultural, and economic status of
they are being observed) or covert (do not know the subject
they are being watched). Observation as a  One weakness of this type of observation is
method of data collection is very cheap to carry that it requires months or years of intensive
out but time-consuming. observation because the researcher needs to
become accepted as part of the culture to
 assure that the collected data are of the
natural phenomenon
Observation Also Follows Steps:
1. Research, it is important to recognize a
problem and identify the objectives.
2. Establish the data gathering method to be
used. The data gathering method will
depend on the type of observation to be
conducted. The most common type of data
gathering in observation is through taking
notes. A video recording can also be done
but with the consent of the observed
participants.
3. Set the guidelines and conduct the
observation. By preparing guides and data
worksheet, will be easy for you to record
the observation.
4. Organize and analyze the collected data.

Some pointers that should or should not be

followed when conducting an OBSERVATION:
• Be attentive and alert when observing
• Collect and record vivid details as much as
possible
• Use a variety of observation methods
• Record only facts in a concise manner
• Avoid using subjective, bias, or judgmental
terms
• Avoid using generalizations of vague
words
• Do not state or use opinions when
recording the observations
 MODULE 7: ANALYZING DATA IN inaccurate data are not deleted, they have the
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH potential to have a detrimental impact on the
study’s outcomes
LESSON 1: Drawing Patterns and Explaining Three common ways of cleaning the qualitative
Themes in Qualitative Research data:
I. Analyzing Qualitative Data a. Spot-checking – check the data entry and
 Qualitative data analysis is a method that is coding problems by comparing raw data
used to identify, examine, and interpret with the electronically inputted data. The
patterns and themes in textual data. participants’ remarks are accurately
 Qualitative analysis defines it as a highly transcribed and that the correct individual
contextualized approach heavily influenced by is credited to them.
the evaluator and the study. It is expected to b. Eyeballing – entails checking the data of
alter and adapt as the investigation errors that may occurred as a result of a
progresses and new data is discovered. data input or coding omission.
 Qualitative data analysis is an ongoing, fluid, c. Logic check – rigorous analysis of the
and cyclical activity over the whole data electronically inputted data – responses to
collection . each different question “make sense”

II. Data Analysis is Process – Coding III. Identifying Meaningful Patterns and
A. KNOWING THE DATA Themes
 Reading and rereading the material
Step 1: Prepare the data
 Taped recordings should be listened to
Step 2: Define the unit of analysis
multiple times
Step 3: Develop categories and a coding scheme
 Handwriting of facts should be used to record
Step 4: Test your coding scheme on a sample text
for future use
Step 5: Code all the text
 Know and critically evaluate the data
Step 6: Assess your coding consistency
B. CONCENTRATING THE ANALYSIS AND
Step 7: Draw conclusions from the coded data.
INVESTIGATION
Step 8: Report your methods and Findings
 Concentration on a certain question or topic, a
specific time period, or a specific event
IV. Interpreting the Data
 Concentration on a certain situation, an
 Summary of key points or notable discoveries
individual, or a group
should be included.
C. CODING
 It is necessary to record the lessons learned
 Predefined codes- are developed by the
as well as any new information.
researcher on the basis of his or her
 The inclusion of quotations or descriptive
information gained from the contexts of
examples provided by the participants is
literature that has been reviewed.
highly recommended.
 Emergent codes – codes that surfaced as a
 The newly acquired knowledge from different
result of a thorough examination of the data.
settings, programs, or evaluated literatures
D. ENTERING AND ORGANIZING DATA
should be put to use in the current situation.
 Accomplish manually with a piece of paper
through the use of computer In order to create the results and conclusions that
are relevant to your study, must ultimately relate
The following suggestions can help to make
back to the questions that are being attempted to
recording process easier:
be answered by the problem.
a. A separate file should be created for each
LESSON 2: Writing the Findings in Qualitative
interview, observation site, and focus
Research
group.
b. Depending on whatever strategy is the Research Findings are the most important facets
most effective, the data within each file of an ongoing research because they contain
should be arranged by questions, periods, what the project suggested, showed, or indicated
or topics. as a result of the research.
E. CLEANING THE DATA
 the process of identifying and correcting Aspects of the findings include the data provided
inaccuracies in data. If the irrelevant data and in table, graphs and other visual representations,
a sentence form explanation and a provided b. Summary of your most important findings
report on data collection, recruitment, and/or c. Inclusion of non-textual resources, such as
participation of the respondents in your study. figures, charts, photographs, maps and tables
d. Systematic summary of your findings that
draw attention to observations that are most
Writing the Research Findings relevant to the topics
e. When referring to your outcomes, use the past
A. SCREEN – isolate useful information from the tense to make them more concrete
rest of the material. Distinguish the material f. The amount and categories of data to be
that is relevant. reported determine the length of your results
B. ANALYZE – provide compelling explanation section.
for including the facts you have selected. III. Problems to Avoid
C. BE THOROUGH – deliver the information in a. Ignoring unfavorable results when they occur.
the logical manner. It must be clearly and – You should not ignore some of your results
concisely. if they are inconsistent with your study.
D. BE PRESENTABLE – visual aids like graphs Document your findings, and then explain why
can and should be used to convey you believe a poor outcome resulted from
information. Come up with creative ways to your research in your discussion section.
deliver the data in appealing manner. b. Presenting or repeating the same material
E. DISCUSS – Maintain complete independence more than once is unacceptable.
from any text found on the internet or in any
book and avoid plagiarism at all costs.
F. RELATE TO THE LITERATURE REVIEW –
Establishing Validity in Qualitative Research
readers will understand how your research is
related to other studies that have taken place 1. EMPLOYING TRIANGULATION – multiple
in the past. sources of data and methods to generate a
completer and more inclusive picture of the
Elements of the Data Analysis, Results, and
phenomena being investigated. In a case
Discussions
study exploring teachers’ experiences in
1. Data Presentation – displayed in accessible online learning, a qualitative researcher may
manner: tables, diagrams or other figures. interview different participants such as the
2. Analysis – foundation for the study’s final students, teachers, and school administrators
conclusion and findings, researcher’s to triangulate data.
expertise and logical reasoning. 2. MEMBER CHECKING – may ask the
3. Interpretation – after examining and participants to check the accuracy of the
synthesizing the patterns and categories coded and analyzed data is this reflects their
produced from the findings, intelligible own perceptions and experiences.
statements are presented. 3. DEMONSTRATING PROLONGED
4. Discussion – to provide a more logical and ENGAGEMENT – provides thick description of
empirical basis for the conclusion. Contains the case and demonstrate his/her prolonged
verbatim quotes from transcripts and personal engagement with the participants. Immersion
narratives of occurrences. The findings of the is important in qualitative research as it
inquiry are compared and contrasted with contributes to the accuracy of the gathered
those of the previously evaluated literature and analyzed data.
and studies in this part.

Structure and Writing Style of Research

Findings
I. Structure and Approach
a. Present the results followed by a short
explanation of the findings.
b. Present the results part by part.
II. Content
a. Introductory framework for comprehending MODULE 8: WRITING CONCLUSIONS AND
results RECOMMENDATIONS: FINALIZING THE
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH REPORT the methodology, the summary of the findings
and the major conclusions.
LESSON 1: Drawing Conclusions and
In your research presentation:
Recommendations from Findings
1. Write an outline, a detailed one. – to
 The conclusion and recommendation mark the
keep you on track
end of the process of writing the research
2. Introduce the subject. – what your
paper.
research is all about
 Focuses on the outcomes and results of your
3. Discuss the sources as well as the
study.
method. – bases of your study and the
 Discusses all the essential findings and
method you have used.
significant outcomes you came up with.
4. Indicate if there are opposing
 It must answer the questions you established
viewpoints on the topic. It may trigger
in the introduction and satisfy the objectives of
discussions that will help you to make your
the paper.
stand
5. Highlight the new results of your study.
Focus on the Research Objectives – the
– relevant findings, conclusions and
conclusion answers the research objective. After
recommendations.
analyzing the data collected, formulate a logical
6. Use visual aids or handouts. –
answer to the research questions.
presentation is very brief and simple
Draw Logical Connections – Aside from
answering the research questions, the conclusion
must also synthesize the findings.
Engage the Theory – the theory that you
presented in the research paper may serve as a
basis for the analysis of data and drawing
conclusions. Base your conclusions on your
theoretical framework.

LESSON 2: Listing References

MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION (MLA) –

It is commonly used to cite sources within the
humanities disciplines like language arts, cultural
studies, and others. The reference list in MLA is
called “WORKS CITED”.
Author’s Last Name, Author’s First Name, Title,
Date Published
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
(APA) – It is commonly used to cite sources in
psychology, education, and the social sciences.
The reference list in APA is called “
REFERENCES”.
Author’s Last Name, Author’s First letter of First
Name, Date Published, Title
CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE (CMOS) – There
are two kinds of formatting under CMOS.
a. Notes and Bibliography
b. Author-date-system

LESSON 3: Writing and Presenting the Final

Research Report
 The research presentation is the last phase of
your journey in research.
 Prepare an abstract. A summary of the whole
research paper. It highlights the major points
of the research like the relevance of the study,