Geomorphic Processes & Landforms

1. Introduction

“Students, you see mountains, plains, valleys, plateaus — all these are landforms.
But do you know how they are created and modified?
The continuous interaction between internal (endogenic) and external (exogenic) forces
shapes Earth’s surface — this process is called Geomorphic Process.”

2. Meaning of Geomorphology and Geomorphic Processes

• Geomorphology:
The study of landforms, their origin, and the processes shaping them.

• Geomorphic Processes:
The physical and chemical actions that sculpt and modify Earth’s crust.

These processes operate under the influence of gravity, temperature, pressure, and
atmosphere.

3. Types of Geomorphic Processes

Geomorphic processes are broadly divided into two categories:

A. Endogenic (Internal) Processes

B. Exogenic (External) Processes

A. Endogenic Processes

Operate inside the Earth and are driven by internal heat and pressure.
They cause vertical and horizontal movements of the crust, leading to mountain building,
volcanism, and earthquakes.

1. Causes of Endogenic Forces

• Radioactive decay of elements → generates heat.

• Residual heat from Earth’s formation.

• Gravitational pressure within the core and mantle.

These cause movements in mantle materials (convection currents) → crustal deformation.

2. Types of Endogenic Movements

A. Diastrophic Movements (Crustal Deformation)

• Slow and gradual movements leading to upliftment, subsidence, or folding of Earth’s

crust.

• Includes:

o Epeirogenic Movements: Vertical movements — cause continental uplift or

subsidence (formation of plateaus, basins).

o Orogenic Movements: Horizontal movements — responsible for mountain

building (fold mountains like Himalayas).

Example:
Himalayas – result of collision between Indian and Eurasian plates.

B. Sudden Movements

• Rapid release of energy → sudden crustal changes.

• Examples: Earthquakes, Volcanic eruptions, Faulting.

Examples:
 • 2015 Nepal Earthquake (Collision Zone).

• Mount Etna Volcanic Eruption.

3. Resulting Landforms (Endogenic Origin)

Process Resulting Landform Example

Folding Fold Mountains Himalayas, Rockies

Faulting Rift Valleys, Block Mountains Great African Rift, Vindhyan

Volcanism Volcanic Cones, Plateaus Deccan Plateau, Mt. Fuji

Earthquakes Fault Scarps San Andreas Fault

B. Exogenic Processes

Operate on the Earth’s surface, driven by external forces like solar energy, atmosphere, and
gravity.
These processes wear down (degrade) or build up (aggrade) the Earth’s crust.

1. Types of Exogenic Processes

Process Type Main Action Description

Weathering Disintegration Breaking down of rocks in situ

Erosion Removal Wearing away and transport of materials

Mass Wasting Downhill movement Gravity-induced rock movement

Deposition Building up Laying down of eroded material

2. Weathering (Detailed)

Definition:
Disintegration or decomposition of rocks due to weather elements like temperature, moisture,
and biological activity.
Types of Weathering:

1. Physical (Mechanical) Weathering

o Caused by temperature change, freezing, or pressure release.

o Common in arid and cold climates.

Examples:

o Exfoliation: Peeling of rock layers (hot deserts).

o Frost Action: Water freezes in cracks, expands → breaks rocks.

o Thermal Expansion: Day-night heating and cooling.

2. Chemical Weathering

o Alters rock composition by chemical reactions.

o Dominant in humid and tropical areas.

Processes:

o Oxidation: Reaction with oxygen (rusting).

o Carbonation: Reaction with carbonic acid → limestone dissolves.

o Hydration: Water combines with minerals.

o Solution: Minerals dissolve in water.

3. Biological Weathering

o Plants, roots, lichens, and animals disintegrate rocks.

 o Example: Roots widening cracks; burrowing animals.

3. Erosion

Definition:
The process by which agents like rivers, glaciers, wind, and sea waves wear away and
transport rock material.

Agents of Erosion:

1. Running Water (Rivers)

2. Wind

3. Glaciers

4. Waves

5. Groundwater

4. Mass Wasting

Movement of weathered materials downslope under gravity.

Examples:

• Landslides

• Rockfalls
 • Soil creep

• Slumping

Common in: Hilly and tectonically active regions (e.g., Himalayas).

5. Deposition

When the energy of erosional agents decreases, they drop the load they carry → forming
depositional landforms (plains, deltas, sand dunes).

4. Landforms Created by Exogenic Processes

A. Fluvial Landforms (By Rivers)

Erosional Landforms

1. V-Shaped Valley – River cuts down rapidly in youthful stage.

2. Gorge / Canyon – Deep narrow valleys (Grand Canyon).

3. Waterfall – Sudden vertical fall of river (Jog Falls, India).

4. Potholes – Circular depressions due to river swirling.

Depositional Landforms

1. Floodplain – Flat area formed by deposition during floods.

2. Natural Levees – Raised banks formed by coarse material.

3. Delta – Deposits at river mouth (Ganga–Brahmaputra Delta).

4. Alluvial Fan – Cone-shaped deposit at foothills.

B. Glacial Landforms
Erosional Landforms

• Cirque – Bowl-shaped depression at glacier head.

• U-shaped Valley – Glacially deepened valley.

• Hanging Valley – Tributary glacier valley left above main.

• Arete, Horn – Sharp ridges and peaks (Matterhorn).

Depositional Landforms

• Moraine – Ridge of debris carried by glaciers.

• Drumlin, Esker – Glacial deposits of till and sand.

C. Aeolian (Wind) Landforms

Erosional Landforms

• Deflation Hollow – Depression caused by wind removal.

• Mushroom Rock – Pedestal-shaped rock due to abrasion.

Depositional Landforms

• Sand Dunes – Crescent-shaped (Barchans) or linear (Seif).

• Loess Deposits – Fine dust deposited far away.

D. Marine Landforms

Erosional Landforms

• Cliff – Steep rock face near coast.

• Sea Cave – Hollow due to wave attack.

• Arch – Formed when cave breaks through.

• Stack – Isolated pillar after arch collapse.

Depositional Landforms

• Beach – Sand accumulation along shore.

• Spit & Bar – Sand ridges extending into sea.

• Lagoon – Enclosed water behind bar.

E. Karst Landforms (By Groundwater)

Found in limestone regions due to carbonation.

Erosional

• Sinkholes (Dolines) – Depressions on surface.

• Limestone Caves – Underground chambers (Ajanta).

• Disappearing Streams – Rivers vanish into sinkholes.

Depositional

• Stalactites: Icicle-like deposits from roof.

• Stalagmites: Upward deposits on floor.

• Columns: When both join together.