Topic 1: Foundation

1.1 Perspectives

Guiding Questions
• How do different perspectives develop?
• How do perspectives affect the decisions we make concerning environmental issues?

1.1.1 A perspective is how a particular situation is viewed and understood by an individual.

Perspectives are based on a mix of personal and collective assumptions, values
and beliefs.

Personal perspectives give rise to a wide range of different positions on environmental and social issues.
Perspectives also in uence people’s choices and actions.

1.1.2. Perspectives are informed and justi ed by sociocultural norms, scienti c

understandings, laws, religion, economic conditions, local and global events,
and lived experience, among other factors.
A perspective is not the same as an argument.
Arguments are made to support a personally held perspective or to counter a different one.

1.1.3 Values are qualities or principles that people feel have worth and importance in life.
Values affect people’s priorities, judgements, perspectives and choices.
Values are individual but are shared with, and shaped by, others in a community.

1.1.4 The values that underpin our perspectives can be seen in our communication and
actions with the wider community. The values held by organizations can be seen
through advertisements, media, policies and actions.
Different values often lead to tensions between individuals and between organizations.

1.1.5 Values surveys can be used to investigate the perspectives shown by a particular
social group towards environmental issues.

Application of skills: Design and carry out questionnaires/surveys/interviews, using online collaborative survey
tools, to correlate perspectives with attitudes towards particular environmental or sustainability issues. Select a
suitable statistical tool to analyse this data. Students may use and develop behaviour-time graphs to show lifestyle
changes. The effective design of values surveys for a particular social group accommodates various perspectives
towards a particular environmental issue, and assesses how these are likely to impact the issue.
(Connections: HL.c)

1.1.6 Worldviews are the lenses shared by groups of people through which they perceive,
make sense of and act within their environment. Worldviews shape people’s values
and perspectives through culture, philosophy, ideology, religion and politics.

With the development of the internet and social media, one’s perspective can be in uenced by a far greater variety
of worldviews than just that of the local community. Consequently, models that attempt to classify perspectives,
though helpful, are invariably inaccurate as individuals often have a complex mix of positions. (Connections: HL.c)

1.1.7 An environmental value system is a model that shows the inputs affecting our
perspectives and the outputs resulting from our perspectives.
A value system has inputs (for example: information from media, education, worldviews) and
outputs (for example: our judgements, positions, choices and actions).
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1.1.8 Environmental perspectives (worldviews) can be classi ed into the broad categories
of technocentric, anthropocentric and ecocentric.
Environmental perspectives (worldviews) are not exclusive categories; a variety of alternative schemes exist.
There are many ways to classify our perspectives; these models are useful but imperfect, as individuals often have
a complex range of positions that change over time and context. Technocentrism assumes all environmental issues
can be resolved through technology. Anthropocentrism views humankind as being the central, most important
element of existence, and splits into a wide variety of views. Ecocentrism sees the natural world as having
preeminent importance and intrinsic value. (Connections: HL.a, HL.c)

1.1.9 Perspectives and the beliefs that underpin them change over time in all societies.
Perspectives can be in uenced by government or non-governmental organization
(NGO) campaigns or through social and demographic change.
Application of skills: Interpret behaviour-time graphs. Examples could include speci c changes, such as
smoking, littering, eating meat or how traditional lifestyles in indigenous cultures are being replaced by modern
ones. (Connections: HL.a, HL.c)

1.1.10 The development of the environmental movement has been in uenced by

individuals, literature, the media, major environmental disasters, international
agreements, new technologies and scienti c discoveries.
Select one example of in uence from each of the following categories: Individual environmental activist, Author,
Media, Environmental disaster, International agreement,Technological development, Scienti c discovery.
(Connections: HL.c)
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 1.2 Systems

Guiding Question
• How can the systems approach be used to model environmental issues at different levels of complexity
and scale?

1.2.1 Systems are sets of interacting or interdependent components.

System components are organized to create a functional whole.

1.2.2 A systems approach is a holistic way of visualizing a complex set of interactions,

and can be applied to ecological or societal situations.
A system has storages and ows, with ows providing inputs and outputs of energy and matter.

1.2.3 In system diagrams, storages are usually represented as rectangular boxes and ows
as arrows, with the direction of each arrow indicating the direction of each ow.

Application of skills: Create systems diagrams representing the storages and ows, inputs and outputs of
systems, such as a lab-based or local natural ecosystems. The size of the boxes and the arrows may be
representative of the size/magnitude of the storage or ow. (Connections: Topic 2, 4.1, 5.1, 8.2)

1.2.4 Flows are processes that may be either transfers or transformations.

Transfers involve a change in location of energy or matter; transformations involve a change in the chemical
nature, a change in state or a change in energy. (Connections: T2.3, 4.1, 5.1)

1.2.5 Systems can be open or closed.

An open system exchanges both energy and matter across its boundary, while a closed system exchanges only
energy across its boundary. Almost all systems are open; only the global geochemical cycles approximate to closed
systems. Biosphere 2 and mesocosms are examples of closed systems, while a local ecosystem is an example of
an open system. (Connections: 2.3, 4.1)

1.2.6 The Earth is a single integrated system encompassing the biosphere, the
hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the geosphere, the atmosphere and the
anthroposphere.

James Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis is a model of the Earth as a single integrated system. The hypothesis (also
known as the Gaia theory) was introduced to explain how atmospheric composition and temperatures are
interrelated through feedback control mechanisms. Many variations of the Gaia theory were further developed by
James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis.

1.2.7 The concept of a system can be applied at a range of scales.

Systems are at a range of scales, including a small-scale local ecosystem, such as a bromeliad in a rainforest; a
large ecosystem, such as a rainforest; and the Gaia hypothesis or atmospheric circulation as an example of a
global system.

1.2.8 Negative feedback loops occur when the output of a process inhibits or reverses the
operation of the same process in such a way as to reduce change.
Negative feedback loops are stabilizing as they counteract deviation.

Use James Lovelock and Andrew Watson’s Daisyworld model to show how temperature regulation can occur due
to the presence of life on a planet in contrast with a dead one. Include other examples.
Application of skills: Use diagrams representing examples of negative feedback.
(Connections: 2.1, 2.5, 5.3, 6.2, 7.2, 8.3)
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1.2.9 As an open system, an ecosystem will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in
a steady-state equilibrium or in one developing over time (for example, succession),
and will be maintained by stabilizing negative feedback loops.

A stable equilibrium is the condition of a system in which there is a tendency for it to return to the previous
equilibrium following disturbance. A steady-state equilibrium is the condition of an open system in which ows are
still occurring but inputs are constantly balanced with outputs. (Connections: 2.5, 3.3)

1.2.10 Positive feedback loops occur when a disturbance leads to an ampli cation of that
disturbance, destabilizing the system and driving it away from its equilibrium.
Positive feedback loops have amplifying roles. Positive feedback can lead to both an increase or a decrease in a
system component. For example, as a population declines, the reproductive potential decreases leading to further
decrease. An example of positive feedback is the reduced albedo (amount of re ection by a surface) due to melting
ice caps leading to greater global warming. There are many other examples.
Application of skills: Use diagrams representing examples of positive feedback.
(Connections: 3.3, 4.4, 5.3, 6.2)

1.2.11 Positive feedback loops will tend to drive the system towards a tipping point.
A tipping point is the minimum amount of change that will cause destabilization within a system. The system then
shifts to a new equilibrium or stable state. (Connections: 2.1, 2.5)

1.2.12 Tipping points can exist within a system where a small alteration in one component
can produce large overall changes, resulting in a shift in equilibrium.
Tipping points result in regime shifts between alternative stable states. Use examples to support the explanation.
For example, a change of nitrate/phosphate concentrations leading to eutrophication. Identify other examples of
such tipping points throughout the course. (Connections: 2.1, 3.3, 4.4, 6.2, 8.4)

1.2.13 A model is a simpli ed representation of reality. Models can be used to understand

how systems works and to predict how they will respond to change.
A model may take many forms, including a graph, a diagram, an equation, a simulation or words.
Models are used throughout the course to represent systems and processes. (Connections: 1.1)

1.2.14 Simpli cation of a model involves approximation and, therefore, loss of accuracy.
The simpli cation of a model can make it less accurate. The systems approach uses models throughout the
course. For example, predictive models of climate change or projections of human population growth explain how a
model may give very different results. Simpli cation will also affect how well a lab-based model ecosystem
approximates to a natural ecosystem. (Connections: 6.2, 8.1)

1.2.15 Interactions between components in systems can generate emergent properties.

Emergent properties appear as individual system components interact; the components themselves do not have
these properties. For example, predator–prey oscillations and trophic cascades are examples of emergent
properties where patterns of change occur that would not occur in isolated components. Include other examples.
(Connections: 3.3, 5.2, 5.3, 6.3, 8.3)

1.2.16 The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid
tipping points and maintain stability.
Resilience of a system is the capacity to resist damage and recover from, or adapt ef ciently to disturbance.
(Connections: 3.3, 6.2, 6.3)

1.2.17 Diversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience
and affect their speed of response to change (time lags).
Consider an example of resilience (for example, the loss of resilience with the displacement of North American
prairie systems with monoculture crops) showing how diversity contributes to the resilience of a system.
Consider how size of storage affects the relative stability of a puddle compared to a lake. (Connections: 5.2)
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1.2.18 Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages and
diversity.
Use the example of loss of resilience in deforestation resulting in reduced size of storages and loss of diversity.
(Connections: 2.5, 5.2, 5.3)
 1.3 Sustainability

Guiding Questions
• What is sustainability and how can it be measured?
• To what extent are challenges of sustainable development also ones of environmental justice?

1.3.1 Sustainability is a measure of the extent to which practices allow for the long-term
viability of a system. Sustainability is generally used to refer to the responsible
maintenance of socio-ecological systems such that there is no diminishment of
conditions for future generations.

All activity is embedded in a system and, in general, enhancing system resilience increases sustainability.
(Connections: 1.2)

1.3.2 Sustainability is comprised of environmental, social and economic pillars.

The ways in which environmental, social and economic sustainability interact can be shown with diagrams. Strong
sustainability models show the economy embedded in society, and both society and economy embedded in the
natural environment. Weak sustainability models only show an overlap in the three pillars. (Connections: HL.b)

1.3.3 Environmental sustainability is the use and management of natural resources that
allows replacement of the resources, and recovery and regeneration of ecosystems.

Sustainability in this context focuses on resource depletion, pollution and conserving biodiversity. Active
regeneration of ecosystems is also considered a component of environmental sustainability. There are different
timescales in the replacement of natural
resources. (Connections: 7.2, HL.a, HL.b)

1.3.4 Social sustainability focuses on creating the structures and systems that support
human well-being, such as health, education, equity, and community.

Sustainability in this context focuses on the survival of societies and their cultures; sustainability may include
consideration of the continued use of language, belief, or spiritual practices in a society. (Connections: HL.c)

1.3.5 Economic sustainability focuses on creating the economic structures and systems to
support production and consumption of goods and services that will support
human needs into the future.

In terms of resource use to meet human needs, there is no economic sustainability without environmental
sustainability. (Connections: HL.b)

1.3.6 Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development
applies the concept of sustainability to our social and economic development.

Sustainable development is a framework that guides further development of human civilization while maintaining
economic stability, social equity and ecological integrity. The Brundtland report of 1987 introduced the social and
economic aspects of sustainability to sustainable development. (Connections: HL.b, HL.c)

1.3.7 Unsustainable use of natural resources can lead to ecosystem collapse.

Use an example of ecosystem collapse due to human overexploitation of the environment (for example, the impact
of over shing on Newfoundland cod sheries). (Connections: 1.2, 4.3, HL.a, HL.b)
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1.3.8 Common indicators of economic development, such as gross domestic product
(GDP), neglect the value of natural systems and may lead to unsustainable
development.

GDP is a measure of the monetary value of nal goods and services produced and sold in a given period by a
country. Focusing on GDP as a measure of economic progress may cause unsustainable development.
Green GDP measures environmental costs and subtracts these from GDP. (Connections: HL.b)

1.3.9 Environmental justice refers to the right of all people to live in a pollution-free
environment, and to have equitable access to natural resources, regardless of
issues such as race, gender, socio-economic status, or nationality.
Consider one local and one global example of environmental injustice. Examples could include: Deepwater Horizon
oil spill, Gulf of Mexico (2010); land lls located in low-income areas; Union Carbide gas release in Bhopal, India
(1984); Maasai land rights in Kenya and Tanzania; plastic waste disposal by developed to developing countries.
(Connections: 1.1, 3.3, 4.2, 4.3, 5.2, 5.3, 6.3, 7.2, 8.3, HL.a, HL.c)

1.3.10 Inequalities in income, race, gender and cultural identity within and between different
societies lead to disparities in access to water, food and energy.
Examples of inequality include the inability to afford an electricity supply, or the privatization of water sources.
(Connections: 1.1, 3.3, 4.2, 4.3, 5.2, 5.3, 6.3, 7.2, 8.3, HL.c)

1.3.11 Sustainability and environmental justice can be applied at the individual to the
global operating scale.
Sustainability and environmental justice issues exist at different operating scales. Different operating scales are
individual (individual decisions on how to live and work), business, community (religious, cultural, political,
indigenous), city, country (policies, laws and socio-economic systems) or global (for example, the United Nations
(UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)). (Connections: 1.1, HL.a, HL.b, HL.c)

1.3.12 Sustainability indicators include quantitative measures of biodiversity, pollution,

human population, climate change, material and carbon footprints, and others.
These indicators can be applied on a range of scales, from local to global.
Consider the use of one named environmental indicator to assess sustainability. (Connections: 3.3, 6.3, 8.3)

1.3.13 The concept of ecological footprints can be used to measure sustainability. If these
footprints are greater than the area or resources available to the population, this
indicates unsustainability.
An ecological footprint is the area of land and water required to sustainably provide all resources at the rate of
consumption and absorb all generated waste at the rate of production for a speci c population.
Application of skills: Use footprint calculators to establish students’ own ecological/carbon/water footprint.
Present comparative data on footprints graphically, using a spreadsheet and graph-plotting software.
(Connections: 4.2, 6.3, 8.3, HL.b)

1.3.14 The carbon footprint measures the amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) produced,
measured in carbon dioxide equivalents (in tonnes).
The water footprint measures water use (in cubic metres per year).
There are different ways of using footprints to measure sustainability. Students do not need to know details of how
these are calculated. (Connections: 4.2, 6.2)

1.3.15 Biocapacity is the capacity of a given biologically productive area to generate an

ongoing supply of renewable resources and to absorb its resulting wastes.
Unsustainability occurs if the area’s ecological footprint exceeds its biocapacity. (Connections: 2.2, 2.5, 8.2, 8.3)
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1.3.16 Citizen science plays a role in monitoring Earth systems and whether resources are
being used sustainably.
Citizen science has a role in the larger picture of scienti c research on environmental systems.
The information gathered is relevant to local problems and conditions, and can be used in research on global
issues, such as climate change. (Connections: 2.1, 3.1, 3.2, 4.2, 6.1, 7.2, 8.4, HL.c)

1.3.17 There are a range of frameworks and models that support our understanding of
sustainability, each with uses and limitations.
Sustainability models, like all models, are simpli ed versions of reality; therefore, they have both uses and
limitations.

1.3.18 The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of social and environmental
goals and targets to guide action on sustainability and environmental justice.
Consider the SDG model and the uses and limitations of the SDGs. The SDGs provide a framework for sustainable
development supported by the UN and address the global challenges faced by humanity, including those related to
poverty, inequality, climate, environmental degradation, prosperity, and peace and justice. Example uses and
limitations include the following:
Uses: Setting of a common ground for policymaking; relating to both developed and developing countries;
galvanizing the international community into addressing economic and social inequality.
Limitations: Goals not going far enough; goals being top down and bureaucratic; tending to ignore local contexts;
lacking in supportive data. (Connections: 4.2, 5.2, 7.2, 8.3, HL.a, HL.b, HL.c)

1.3.19 The planetary boundaries model describes the nine processes and systems that
have regulated the stability and resilience of the Earth system in the Holocene
epoch. The model also identi es the limits of human disturbance to those systems,
and proposes that crossing those limits increases the risk of abrupt and irreversible
changes to Earth systems.
Consider the planetary boundaries model and select which planetary boundaries appear to have been crossed and
factors that have led to this. (HL only: Use quantitative data to discover when, and if, planetary boundaries have
been crossed where appropriate in the course.) Example uses and limitations include the following:
Uses: Identi es science-based limits to human disturbance of Earth systems; highlights the need to focus on more
than climate change (which dominates discussion); alerts the public and policymakers about the urgent need for
action to protect Earth systems.
Limitations: Focuses only on ecological systems and does not consider the human dimension necessary to take
action for environmental justice; the model is a work in progress — assessments of boundaries are changing as
new data becomes available; the focus on global boundaries may not be a useful guide for local and country-level
action. (Connections: 2.3, 3.2, 4.2, 4.4, 5.3, 6.2, 6.4, 7.2, 8.4, HL.a, HL.b, HL.c)
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1.3.20 The doughnut economics model is a framework for creating a regenerative and
distributive economy in order to meet the needs of all people within the means of
the planet.
Consider the doughnut economics model and the concepts of regenerative and distributive design.
The social foundation (inner boundary of the doughnut) is based on the social SDGs. The ecological ceiling (outer
boundary of the doughnut) is based on planetary boundaries science. Together, the social foundation and the
ecological ceiling represent the minimum conditions for an economy that is ecologically safe and socially just —
thus, the doughnut is the “safe and just space for humanity”. Today, billions of people still fall short of the social
foundation, while humanity has collectively overshot most of the planetary boundaries. Therefore, the goal as
illustrated by this model is to move into the doughnut and create an economy that enables humanity to thrive in
balance with the rest of the living world. “Moving into the doughnut” can only be achieved by making economies
that become regenerative and distributive by design. A regenerative economy works with, and within, the cycles
and limits of the living world. A distributive economy shares value and opportunity far more equitably among all
stakeholders. Example uses and limitations include the following:
Uses: The model includes both ecological and social elements, supporting the concept of environmental justice;
the model has reached popular awareness and is being used at different scales (for example, countries, cities,
neighbourhoods, businesses) to support action on sustainability.
Limitations: The model is a work in progress — different groups are trying to apply the model for concrete action;
the model advocates broad principles of regenerative and distributive practice but does not propose speci c
policies. (Connections: HL.b, HL.c)

1.3.21 The circular economy is a model that promotes decoupling economic activity from
the consumption of nite resources. A circular economy has three principles:
eliminating waste and pollution, circulating products and materials, and
regenerating nature.

The butter y diagram from the Ellen MacArthur Foundation is a useful illustration of the circular economy.
A circular economy is different to the linear economic model (take–make–waste). Example uses and limitations
include the following:
Uses: Regeneration of natural systems; reduction of greenhouse emissions; improvement of local food networks
and support of local communities; reduction of waste by extending product life cycle; changed consumer habits.
Limitations: Lack of environmental awareness by consumers and companies; lack of regulations enforcing
recycling of products; technical limitations — some waste is not recyclable; lack of nance.
(Connections: HL.b, HL.c)
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