CHAPTER 6
USING ENTROPY
ME 203
Fall 2024
Prof. Dr. Abdullah Ulaş
Tds
T)
du + P de he hi Cp(Tz -
h
=
u + 00
-
=
.
=
m - u
1
= G(Tz -
T)
ah = du + Par
↓ dPO PERT
ah-ou-doto ↑
dh-do ds-d
• To take the integrals in Equations (6.17) and (6.18), 3
approaches (methods) can be used:
[Link] =
[Link] + du
1) Constant Specific Heats Approach:
• Use this approach if the temperature change during the
process, ∆𝑇, is small.
• If 𝐶𝑝 and 𝐶𝑣 changes significantly between 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 ,
this approach results in significant error (the least
accurate method).
• To decrease error, evaluate 𝐶𝑝 and 𝐶𝑣 at the mean
𝑇1 +𝑇2
temperature of 𝑇 = .
2
• Can always use this approach for monatomic gases
without any error.
2) Analytical equation for 𝑪𝒑 :
• Not practical to use in hand calculations.
• Use it in developing thermodynamic computer codes.
3) Variable Specific Heat Approach:
• Use Ideal Gas Tables to find ∆𝑠.
• Define a function called ‘‘Standard Entropy’’:
𝑇
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇)
𝑠𝑇𝑜 = 𝑑𝑇
𝑇
*-R
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
h
𝑠𝑇𝑜 Prof
.
• is only a function of 𝑇. Siy
T R
• Then, Equation (6.18) becomes:
𝑇2 𝑇1
𝐶𝑝 (𝑇) 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 𝑃2
∆𝑠 = 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑅 ln
𝑇 𝑇 𝑃1
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑃2 Say
RUP
+ R
𝑜 𝑜
- .
⇒ ∆𝑠 = 𝑠𝑇2 − 𝑠𝑇1 − 𝑅 ln
𝑃1
p(e
+
en
E
• Table A.22 lists 𝑠𝑇𝑜 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 for AIR.
• Table A.23 lists 𝑠𝑇𝑜 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾 for OTHER IDEAL GASES.
𝑠𝑇𝑜 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙∙𝐾
• Note: 𝑠𝑇𝑜 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 = 𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑊(𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙)
SPECIAL CASES FOR IDEAL GASES:
1) For an ISENTROPIC PROCESS of an ideal gases with
CONSTANT specific heats (i.e., using constant specific heats
approach):
𝑇2 𝑣2
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 = 𝟎 = 𝐶𝑣 ln + 𝑅𝐶𝑣 ln
𝑇1 𝑣1
𝑇2 𝑣1
𝐶𝑣 ln = 𝑅𝐶𝑣 ln
𝑇1 𝑣2
𝐶𝑣 𝑅
𝑇2 𝑣1
=
𝑇1 𝑣2
• Where, 𝑅 = 𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 . Then:
𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑝 −𝐶𝑣
𝑃2 𝑣2 𝑣1
=
𝑃1 𝑣1 𝑣2
𝐶𝑣 𝐶𝑝
𝑃2 𝑣1
=
𝑃1 𝑣2
𝒌
𝑷𝟐 𝒗𝟏
= ⇒ 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝒌 = 𝑷𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒌
𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐
𝑷 ∙ 𝒗𝒌 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (1)
𝐶𝑝
• Where, 𝑘 = .....specific heat ratio of ideal gases.
𝐶𝑣
• For an ideal gas: 𝑘 = 𝑓 𝑇
• Using Equation (1) and ideal gas EOS:
𝒌−𝟏
𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝒌 𝒗𝟏 𝒌−𝟏
= = (2)
𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐
• Note that Equation (2) can be osed ONLY for the
ISENTROPIC PROCESS of an IDEAL GAS having
CONSTANT SPECIFIC HEATS.
• Note also that Equation (1) is similar to reversible,
POLYTROPIC PROCESS:
𝑷 ∙ 𝒗𝒏 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 (3)
• For an IDEAL GAS undergoing a POLYTROPIC process,
using Equation (3) and ideal gas EOS:
𝒏−𝟏
𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝒏 𝒗𝟏 𝒏−𝟏
= = (4)
𝑻𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐
2) For an ISENTROPIC PROCESS of an ideal gases with
VARIABLE specific heats (i.e., using variable specific
heats approach):
𝑜 𝑜
𝑃2
∆𝑠 = 0 = 𝑠𝑇2 − 𝑠𝑇1 − 𝑅 ln
𝑃1
𝑠𝑜
𝑇2
𝑜 𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑃2 𝑠𝑇2 𝑠𝑇1 𝑅
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 − = 𝑠𝑜
(5)
𝑃1 𝑅 𝑅 𝑇1
𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑅
• Define ‘‘RELATIVE PRESSURE’’, 𝑃𝑟 :
𝑠𝑇𝑜
𝑃𝑟 ≡ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (6)
𝑅
• 𝑃𝑟 is only a function of temperature.
• 𝑃𝑟 is given in Table A.22 for AIR.
• Then, using Equations (5) and (6):
𝑃2 𝑃𝑟,2
= (7)
𝑃1 𝑃𝑟,1
• Note that Equation (7) can ONLY be used for the
ISENTROPIC PROCESS of an IDEAL GAS with
VARIABLE specific heats.
• From ideal gas EOS: us-h C =-
e
𝑅𝑇2 𝑅𝑇2
𝑣2 𝑃2 𝑃𝑟,2 Uc +
Pavy
= 𝑅𝑇1 = 𝑅𝑇1 a+
(8)
𝑣1 𝑃1 𝑃𝑟,1
• Define ‘‘RELATIVE SPECIFIC VOLUME’’, 𝑣𝑟 :
𝑅∙𝑇
𝑣𝑟 ≡ (9)
𝑃𝑟
• 𝑣𝑟 is only a function of temperature.
• 𝑣𝑟 is given in Table A.22 for AIR.
• From Equations (8) and (9):
𝑣2 𝑣𝑟,2
= (10)
𝑣1 𝑣𝑟,1
• Note that Equation (10) can ONLY be used for the
ISENTROPIC PROCESS of an IDEAL GAS with
VARIABLE specific heats.
SECOND LAW AS A RATE EQUATION:
𝛿𝑄
• In differential form: 𝑑𝑆 = + 𝛿𝜎
𝑇
2 𝛿𝑄
• Integrated form: 𝑆2 − 𝑆1 = 1 𝑇
+ 𝜎1,2𝐶.𝑀.
𝑑𝑆 𝑄
• Rate form: = + 𝜎𝐶.𝑀.
𝑑𝑡 𝑇
PART B: SECOND LAW FOR OPEN SYSTEMS:
• For a CLOSED system, the second law in the rate form:
𝑑𝑆 𝑄
= + 𝜎𝐶.𝑀. (11)
𝑑𝑡 𝑇
1 2
• Term 1: ‘‘Rate of entropy transfer to C.M. by heat transfer’’
• Term 2: ‘‘Rate of entropy generation in C.M. due to internal
irreversibilities’’
• For an open system:
• The second law becomes:
𝑄𝑗 𝑑𝑆𝐶𝑉
𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑖 − 𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒 + 𝑗𝑇 + 𝜎𝐶𝑉 = (12)
𝑗 𝑑𝑡
1 2 4 5
3
• Term 1: ‘Entropy gain of CV due to mass flow into CV’
• Term 2: ‘Entropy loss of CV due to mass flow out of CV’
• Term 3: ‘Entropy transfer by heat transfer to CV’
• Term 4: ‘Entropy generation due to internal
irreversibilities within CV’
• Term 5: ‘Rate of change of entropy inside CV’
STEADY STATE PROCESES:
• For steady state (SS) processes:
𝑑𝑆𝐶𝑉
=0
𝑑𝑡
• The second law for SS processes becomes:
𝑄𝑗
𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑖 − 𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒 + 𝑗 𝑇 + 𝜎𝐶𝑉 = 0 (13)
𝑗
• For 1 inlet-1 outlet system with heat transfer from one
reservoir:
𝑚𝑖 = 𝑚𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚
𝑄
𝑚 𝑠𝑖 − 𝑠𝑒 + + 𝜎𝐶𝑉 = 0
𝑇
• If the process is adiabatic: 𝑄 = 0
𝑚 𝑠𝑒 − 𝑠𝑖 = 𝜎𝐶𝑉 ≥ 0
𝑠𝑒 − 𝑠𝑖 ≥ 0
TRANSIENT PROCESES:
• For transient processes:
𝑑𝑆𝐶𝑉
≠0
𝑑𝑡
• If we integrate Equation (12) from the beginning of the
transient process (𝑡 = 0) to the end of the transient process
(𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑓 ):
𝑡𝑓
𝑄
𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑖 − 𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒 + 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜎𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚2 𝑠2 − 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝐶𝑉
𝑇
0
(14)
• If 𝑄 and the temperature at the boundary where the heat
transfer takes place are CONSTANTS with time:
𝑡𝑓
𝑄 𝑄
𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇 𝑇
0
PRINCIPLE OF THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY FOR A
CV:
• Consider an open system (CV) undergoing a process
during which it exchanges heat, work, and masses with
its surroundings as follows:
• The open system and its surroundings can be considered as
an isolated system.
• For this isolated system, the 2nd Law in rate form:
𝑑𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑄 0
= + 𝜎𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙
𝑑𝑡 𝑇
𝑑𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙
⇒ = 𝜎𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙 ≥ 0 (15)
𝑑𝑡
• Note that:
𝑑𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙
– Rate of entropy change of the isolated system, is
𝑑𝑡
also called as rate of change of net entropy during the
𝑑𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑡
process, .
𝑑𝑡
– 𝜎𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙 → Total entropy generation during the process
• Since isolated system is the combination of the open system
and its surroundings:
𝑑𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑆𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
= + = 𝜎𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙 ≥ 0 (16)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Equation (16) is called ‘The Principle of the Increase of the
Entropy for a CV’.
• For a steady state process:
𝑑𝑆𝐶𝑉
=0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
= 𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒 − 𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑖 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
• Where, 𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 =−𝑄𝐶𝑉
• For a transient process:
𝑑𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙
= 𝜎𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙
𝑑𝑡
• Integrate this equation during the process from 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓 :
𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑓
𝑑𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙 = 𝜎𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑡
0 0
∆𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙 = 𝜎𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙
• Remember that entropy change of the isolated system is
the sum of entropy change of CV and the surroundings:
∆𝑆𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙 = ∆𝑆𝐶𝑉 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
• Where,
∆𝑆𝐶𝑉 = 𝑚2 𝑠2 − 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝐶𝑉
𝑄𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑒 − 𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑖 +
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
REVERSIBLE STEADY FLOW WORK:
• The 1st Law (per mass flow rate) for a 1-inlet, 1-exit
open system undergoing an internally reversible (quasi-
equilibrium), steady state process:
𝑉𝑖2 −𝑉𝑒2
𝑤 = 𝑞 + ℎ𝑖 − ℎ𝑒 + + 𝑔 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑧𝑒 (17)
2
• Remember that for an internally reversible process:
𝑒
𝑞 = 𝑖 𝑇 𝑑𝑠 (18)
• 2nd T-ds relation:
𝑇𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑃 (19)
• Substitute (19) into (18):
𝑒 𝑒
𝑞= 𝑑ℎ − 𝑣𝑑𝑃
𝑖 𝑖
𝑒
⇒ 𝑞 = ℎ𝑒 − ℎ𝑖 − 𝑖
𝑣𝑑𝑃 (20)
• Substitute (20) into (17):
𝑒 𝑉𝑖2 −𝑉𝑒2
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣. = − 𝑖
𝑣𝑑𝑃 + + 𝑔 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑧𝑒 (21)
2
• Equation (21) is called ‘REVERSIBLE STEADY FLOW
WORK’.
• If kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible:
𝑒
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣. = − 𝑖
𝑣𝑑𝑃 (22)
a
• If 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (as for liquids):
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣. = −𝑣 𝑃𝑒 − 𝑃𝑖 (23)
• Equation (23) can be used to find the work input to an
internally reversible PUMP.
• If 𝑤 = 0 as in the case of nozzles and diffusers:
𝑒 𝑉𝑒2 −𝑉𝑖2
𝑖
𝑣𝑑𝑃 + + 𝑔 𝑧𝑒 − 𝑧𝑖 = 0 (24)
2
• Equation (24) is called ‘BERNOULLI EQUATION’.
• Note the difference between internally reversible
boundary work in a CLOSED system and internally
reversible, steady flow work in an OPEN system.
(1 (n)
> eti
de
-
1 P. C
1 -
• For an INTERNALLY REVERSIBLE, POLYTROPIC,
STEADY STATE process of an OPEN system:
𝑒 𝐶2
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣. = − 𝑣𝑑𝑃 and 𝑃 ∙ 𝑣𝑛 = 𝐶1 → 𝑣 =
𝑖 𝑃1/𝑛
• Substitute 𝑣 into the integral. The result of integration:
𝑛
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣. = 𝑃𝑒 𝑣𝑒 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑣𝑖 𝑛≠1 (25)
1−𝑛
• For an ideal gas: 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇, then we have:
𝑛𝑅
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣. = 𝑇𝑒 − 𝑇𝑖 𝑛≠1 (26)
1−𝑛
• When 𝑛 = 1: 𝑃𝑣 = 𝐶 which means 𝑃𝑖 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑣𝑒
𝑒 𝑃𝑒 𝑃𝑒
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣. = − 𝑖
𝑣𝑑𝑃 = −𝑃𝑖 𝑣𝑖 ln =−𝑃𝑒 𝑣𝑒 ln (27)
𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖
• For an ideal gas: 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 = 𝐶,which means isothermal
process:
𝑃𝑒
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑡.𝑟𝑒𝑣. = −𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑛=1 (28)
𝑃𝑖
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF TURBINES, NOZZLES,
COMPRESSORS/PUMPS, AND NOZZLES/DIFFUSERS:
• In Chapter 5, we compared actual cycles with ideal
(reversible) cycles (which are called CARNOT cycles).
• Actual Cycles: Have irreversibilities. Therefore, have less
efficiencies.
• Ideal Cycles: Have no irreversibilities. Therefore, have
the maximum efficiencies.
• Irreversibilities decreases the performance of the cycles,
i.e.:
– less work output from power cycles
– more work input to refrigeration/heat pump cycles
• Now, in this section, we will compare actual steady flow
devices with ideal steady flow devices.
• Actual steady flow devices: Have irreversibilities and
heat loss. Therefore, have lower performances.
• Ideal steady flow devices: Have no irreversibilities and
no heat loss. Therefore, have the maximum performance
(i.e., efficiencies).
• For ideal steady flow devices, the ideal process
becomes:
REVERSIBLE+ADIABATIC PROCESS≡ISENTROPIC
PROCESS
• To compare the actual devices with ideal ones, we use
the ‘ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY’ concept.
1) ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF TURBINES:
2) ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF COMPRESSORS
/PUMPS:
, 𝑃𝑒,𝑎 = 𝑃𝑒,𝑠
𝑤𝑠 →ideal work input
to ideal compressor
3) ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF NOZZLES
/DIFFUSERS:
↑
(2)-