ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

"GRATITUDE IS NOT ONLY THE GREATEST OF VIRTUES, BUT THE PARENT OF ALL
OTHERS." — CICERO

In the journey of learning and growth, there comes a moment to pause and reflect upon the
countless hands that have guided, supported, and inspired us along the way. Every achievement
is not merely a result of individual effort, but a symphony composed of many unseen
contributions, heartfelt encouragements, and shared wisdom. I find myself deeply grateful to all
those who have been a part of this journey, helping me transform challenges into stepping
stones and dreams into reality.

Among these guiding lights, I owe my deepest gratitude to Mr. Sanjeev Yadav and lab assistant
Mr. Shubham, whose benevolent mentorship has been a cornerstone of my growth. Their
constructive counsel, meticulous supervision, and constant encouragement have helped me
navigate challenges and refine my understanding. Their unwavering belief in my potential has
inspired me to strive for excellence and remain steadfast in my pursuits. Words fall short in
expressing the profound impact they have had on my journey, and I shall forever remain
indebted to them.

I would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks to my parents, whose love, care, and
unwavering concern have been my anchor. Their silent sacrifices, endless encouragement, and
boundless faith in me have nurtured my spirit and strengthened my resolve. Their presence has
been a source of comfort and inspiration, reminding me that no goal is too distant when
pursued with dedication and love.

To all who have walked beside me—whether in moments of triumph or trials—I offer my
sincere appreciation. Your contributions have shaped not just my achievements, but the very
essence of who I am becoming.

- Atharv Kushwaha
(XII - A)
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Practical Record submitted by Atharv Kushwaha, student of Class
12th – A, for the All India Senior School Certificate Examination (A.I.S.S.C.E.),
conducted by the Central Board of Secondary Education (C.B.S.E.), for the academic
year 2025-26, is a genuine and original compilation of work undertaken by the candidate.

The project reflects the candidate’s sincere efforts, dedication, and active engagement in the
subject of Physics. Throughout the preparation and execution of this practical record, the
student has demonstrated a commendable level of discipline, curiosity, and commitment to
learning.

We have thoroughly reviewed the contents of the submitted work and are fully satisfied with
the quality, accuracy, and relevance of the material presented. The project adheres to the
academic standards and guidelines prescribed by the C.B.S.E. curriculum.

It is further certified that Atharv Kushwaha has successfully fulfilled all the requirements
outlined in the Physics syllabus for the Senior Secondary level, including practical
assignments, project work, and internal assessments, as mandated by the C.B.S.E. Board.

We wish the candidate continued success in all future academic and professional endeavours.

Teacher's Signature Principal's Signature

 INTRODUCTION

Electricity is one of the most powerful forces in the universe and the foundation of
modern civilization. It lights our homes, powers our devices, and drives our industries.
The study of Current Electricity deals with the flow of electric charges in conductors, the
factors controlling it, and the laws governing it.

Current electricity is the controlled movement of electrons through a conductor when a

potential difference is applied. Understanding this phenomenon helps us in designing
electrical circuits, machines, and networks that operate efficiently.

Historically, electricity was first studied as static electricity, when rubbed objects
attracted small particles. But it was only in the 19th century that scientists like Ohm,
Faraday, and Volta laid the foundations for the study of current electricity.

Today, nearly every invention — from light bulbs to computers — depends on current
electricity. In this project, we’ll explore its laws, applications, and experimental
verification through simple school-level apparatus.
 OBJECTIVE

The main aims of this project are:

1. To understand the basic concept of electric current and how charges move through a
conductor.

2. To study and experimentally verify Ohm’s Law and understand its limitations.

3. To learn about resistance and the various factors affecting it such as length, area, and
temperature.

4. To analyze series and parallel combinations of resistors and their practical

significance.

5. To understand and apply Kirchhoff’s Laws for solving circuit problems.

6. To study the concepts of electrical power and energy consumption in real-life

appliances.

7. To explore the Wheatstone Bridge and Meter Bridge as applications of current

electricity.

8. To relate theoretical principles with practical household wiring and electrical safety.

9. To develop a deeper understanding of the microscopic view of current — drift

velocity and mobility of electrons.

10. To appreciate the importance of electricity in technology and sustainable energy

systems, fostering awareness of efficient energy use.
 ELECTRIC CHARGE AND ELECTRIC CURRENT

ELECTRIC CHARGE (Q):

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter responsible for electrical

phenomena. It can be positive or negative, carried by protons and electrons
respectively.

ELECTRIC CURRENT (I):

The rate of flow of electric charge across any cross-section of a conductor is called
electric current.

Where,

I = Current (in amperes, A)

q = Small amount of charge
t = Time interval
Unit:

1 Ampere (A) = 1 Coulomb of charge flowing per second.

Direction of Current:

Conventionally, current flows from the positive terminal to the negative

terminal of the cell, opposite to the direction of electron flow.

Example:

If 10 C of charge passes through a wire in 2 s,

I = 10/2
I = 5s
 Drift Velocity and Mobility

In a metal conductor, electrons move randomly due to thermal motion. When an

external electric field is applied, they gain a small net velocity opposite to the
field. This velocity is called drift velocity.

Typical drift velocity ≈ 10⁻⁴ m/s — very small, but due to a large number of
electrons, a measurable current flows.

Mobility (μ):
Mobility of electrons is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field.

Relation between Current and Drift Velocity:

Derivation Insight:

If the number of free electrons per unit volume is n, then the total charge flowing
through area A in time t is,
 Derivation of Ohm’s Law from Drift Theory

Graph:
 Resistance and Resistivity

Resistance (R):
The opposition offered by a conductor to the flow of current.

Resistivity (ρ):

Resistivity is a material property that determines how strongly it resists the flow of
current.

Units:
Resistance → ohm (Ω)
Resistivity → ohm-meter (Ωm)

Conductivity (σ):

Example:
⇒
Copper has low resistivity (~1.7 × 10⁻⁸ Ωm) excellent conductor.
⇒
Nichrome has high resistivity (~1.1 × 10⁻⁶ Ωm) used in heaters.
 Temperature Dependence of Resistance

For metals, resistance increases with temperature due to increased

vibration of atoms, which hinder electron movement.

Graph:

For semiconductors, resistance decreases with temperature, because more charge

carriers are released at higher temperature.

Practical Examples:

Metallic conductors (Copper, Silver): +ve α

Semiconductors (Silicon, Germanium): −ve α

Alloys (Manganin, Constantan): very low α ⇒ used in standard resistors.

 Ohmic and Non-Ohmic Conductors

Ohmic Conductors:

Those which obey Ohm’s Law (V I). ∝

Example: Metallic wires, carbon resistors.

Non-Ohmic Conductors:

Do not obey Ohm’s law; V–I curve is nonlinear.

Examples: Semiconductor diodes, filament lamps.

Reason for Non-linearity:

Change in temperature

Change in resistivity

Junction behavior (as in diodes)

 Combination of Resistors:

Series Combination:

Parallel Combination:

Example:

Two resistors 4Ω and 6Ω

* In series → 10Ω
* In parallel → 2.4Ω
 Kirchhoff’s Laws

1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL):

At any junction, the total current entering equals the total current leaving.

2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

In any closed loop, the sum of potential differences is zero.

These laws form the basis for complex circuit analysis.

 Wheatstone Bridge

Used to determine unknown resistance accurately.

Balanced condition:

If bridge is balanced, current through galvanometer = 0.

Applications:
- Measurement of resistances

- Detection of small resistance changes (in sensors, strain gauges)

Metre Bridge

It is a practical form of the Wheatstone bridge using a uniform 1 m wire.

Principle:
Potential difference across uniform wire ∝ length.
Use:
To determine unknown resistance by balancing the bridge.

Wheatstone Bridge Metre Bridge

EMF and Internal Resistance of a Cell

Electromotive Force (E):

The potential difference across cell terminals when no current is drawn.

Terminal Voltage (V):

When no current flows (open circuit), .

When current flows, terminal voltage falls due to internal resistance.

Combination of Cells
~ Series Combination:

Increases voltage output.

~ Parallel Combination:

Increases current capacity.

 Electrical Power and Energy

Power:

Energy:

• Units:

# Power → Watt (W)

# Energy → Joule (J) or kilowatt-hour (kWh)

1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J

• Practical Example:

A 100 W bulb running for 10 h →

Energy = 100 × 10 = 1000 Wh = 1 kWh
Heating Effect of Current (Joule’s Law

# Applications:

~ Electric heaters and irons

~ Incandescent bulbs

~ Fuse wire (melts when current exceeds limit)

# Experiment:

A current through a resistor produces heat measurable by temperature rise.

Chemical Effects of Current

When current passes through a conducting liquid (electrolyte), it causes electrolysis.

# Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis:

1. The mass of a substance deposited ∝ charge passed.

2. Equal charges deposit masses proportional to their equivalent weights.

# Applications:

~ Electroplating

~ Electrorefining

~ Battery charging
 Electrical Measuring Instruments

• Ammeter:
Measures current, connected in series, low resistance.

• Voltmeter:
Measures potential difference, connected in parallel, high resistance.

• Galvanometer:
Detects small current presence or direction.
Applications of Current Electricity

- Power transmission and distribution

- Lighting, heating, and cooling systems

- Communication and control systems

- Robotics, automation, electric vehicles

- Medical equipment and scientific instruments

Safety and Precautions

- Avoid short circuits and overloading.

- Always connect fuse and proper insulation.

- Use earthing in circuits to prevent shocks.

- Turn off main switch during repairs.

 Conclusion

Current electricity is the foundation of all electrical and electronic

systems. The flow of electrons in conductors, governed by laws like Ohm’s
and Kirchhoff’s, explains how circuits work and how energy can be
transmitted and transformed.

From the tiniest microchip to the largest power grid, understanding

current electricity allows us to design safer, more efficient, and sustainable
technologies. It bridges the gap between theoretical physics and real-
world engineering.
 Bibliography

~ Books:

1. NCERT Physics Class XII – Part 1

2. Concepts of Physics – H.C. Verma

~ Websites:

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]