Intermolecular forces are forces between molecules.
Depending on its
strength, intermolecular forces cause the forming of three physical states:
solid, liquid and gas. The physical properties of melting point, boiling
point, vapor pressure, evaporation, viscosity, surface tension, and
solubility are related to the strength of attractive forces between
molecules. These attractive forces are called Intermolecular Forces. The
amplitude of interaction is important in the interpretation of the various
properties listed above.
Introduction
There are four types of intermolecular forces. Most of the intermolecular
forces are identical to bonding between atoms in a single molecule.
Intermolecular forces just extend the thinking to forces between
molecules and follows the patterns already set by the bonding within
molecules.
Coulombic Forces
The forces holding ions together in ionic solids are electrostatic forces.
Opposite charges attract each other. These are the strongest
intermolecular forces. Ionic forces hold many ions in a crystal lattice
structure. According to Coulomb’s law:
is the charges.
is the distance of separation.
Based on Coulomb’s law, we can find the potential energy between
different types of molecules.
Dipole Forces
Polar covalent molecules are sometimes described as "dipoles", meaning
that the molecule has two "poles". One end (pole) of the molecule has a
partial positive charge while the other end has a partial negative charge.
The molecules will orientate themselves so that the opposite charges
attract principle operates effectively.
In the figure below, hydrochloric acid is a polar molecule with the partial
positive charge on the hydrogen and the partial negative charge on the
chlorine. A network of partial + and - charges attract molecules to each
other.
Dipole-Dipole Interactions
When a polar molecule encounters another polar molecule, the positive
end of one molecule is attracted to the negative end of the other polar
molecule. Many molecules have dipoles, and their interaction occur by
dipole-dipole interaction. For example: SO2 ↔SO2. (approximate energy: 15
kJ/mol). Polar molecules have permanent dipole moments, so in this case,
we consider the electrostatic interaction between the two dipoles:
µ is the permanent dipole moment of the molecule 1 and 2.
Ion-Dipole Interactions
Ion-Dipole interaction is the interaction between an ion and polar
molecules. For example, the sodium ion/water cluster interaction is
approximately 50 KJ/mol.
Because the interaction involves in the charge of the ion and the dipole
moment of the polar molecules, we can calculate the potential energy of
interaction between them using the following formula:
r is the distance of separation.
q is the charge of the ion ( only the magnitude of the charge is
shown here.)
is the permanent dipole moment of the polar molecule.
Hydrogen Bonding
The hydrogen bond is really a special case of dipole forces. A hydrogen
bond is the attractive force between the hydrogen attached to an
electronegative atom of one molecule and an electronegative atom of a
different molecule. Usually the electronegative atom is oxygen, nitrogen,
or fluorine. In other words - The hydrogen on one molecule attached to O
or N that is attracted to an O or N of a different molecule.
In the graphic below, the hydrogen is partially positive and attracted to
the partially negative charge on the oxygen or nitrogen. Because oxygen
has two lone pairs, two different hydrogen bonds can be made to each
oxygen. This is a very specific bond as indicated. Some combinations that
are not hydrogen bonds include: hydrogen to another hydrogen or
hydrogen to a carbon.
Induced Dipole Forces
Forces between essentially non-polar molecules are the weakest of all
intermolecular forces. "Temporary dipoles" are formed by the shifting of
electron clouds within molecules. These temporary dipoles attract or repel
the electron clouds of nearby non-polar molecules.
The temporary dipoles may exist for only a fraction of a second but a
force of attraction also exist for that fraction of time. The strength of
induced dipole forces depends on how easily electron clouds can be
distorted. Large atoms or molecules with many electrons far removed
from the nucleus are more easily distorted. Review - Non-Polar Bonds
London Dispersion force
London Dispersion Force, also called induced dipole-induced dipole, is the
weakest intermolecular force. It is the interaction between two nonpolar
molecules. For example: interaction between methyl and methyl group: (-
CH3 ↔ CH3-). (approximate energy: 5 KJ/mol)
When two non polar molecules approach each other, attractive and
repulsive forces between their electrons and nuclei will lead to distortions
in these electron clouds, which mean they are induced by the neighboring
molecules, and this leads to the interaction. We can calculate the
potential energy between the two identical nonpolar molecule as followed
formula:
α is the polarizability of nonpolar molecule.
r is the distance between the two molecule.
I = the first ionization energy of the molecule.
Negative sign indicates the attractive interaction. For two nonidentical
nonpolar molecules A and B, we have the formula:
Problems
1. Two HBr molecules (u= 0.78 D) are separate by 300pm in air.
Calculate the dipole-dipole interaction energy in KJ/mol if they are
oriented from end to end.
2. Calculate the potential energy of interaction of a sodium ion that is
at 3 Amstrong from HCl molecule with a dipole moment of 1.08 D.
3. Calculate the potential energy of interaction between two He atoms
separated by 5 Amstrong in the air. (polarizability = 0.20x 10 -30 m3 . I
= 2373 KJ/mol)
Solution
1. 1D=3.3356x10-30Cm; 300pm=3 Amstrong= 3x10-10m. V=-2.7 KJ/mol
2. -35 KJ/mol
3. -0.0045 KJ/mol