TRAINING MODULE ON

AGROECOLOGICAL PRACTICE
(ENGLISH VERSION)

MIZORAM STATE RURAL LIVELIHOODS MISSION

RURAL DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT
GOVERNMENT OF MIZORAM
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Module Topics Page
No. No.
1 Scope of Agroecological Practice 1
2 All about Soil 9
3 Plant Nutrition 33
4 Nursery management 51
5 All about seed 61
6 Pesticide effect on human health 69
7 Ginger processing 75
8 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 83
 MODULE- 1
SCOPE OF AGROECOLOGICAL PRACTICE

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 Agroecological Practices
“The application of ecological concepts and principles to the
design and management of sustainable agroecosystems” These
approaches involve the maintenance or introduction of agricultural
biodiversity. Interaction of crops, livestock, agroforestry, fish,
pollinators, insects, soil biomass and other components around
production systems To achieve the desired results in production
and sustainability.
AEP approach optimizes the use of locally available resources
by combining the components of the farm system i.e. plants, animals,
soil, water, climate and people. Reduces the use of external and
non-renewable inputs and ensures sustainability, Rely mainly on
resources within the agroecosystem with nutrient cycling, better
conservation and an expanded use of local resources. Values and
conserves biological diversity and makes optimal use of the biological
and genetic potential of plant and animal species. Takes full
advantage of local knowledge and practices, including innovative
approaches not yet fully understood by scientists although widely
adopted by farmers.
In Agroecology the emphasis is on diversifying and strengthening
the agroecosystem by adding regenerative components such as
combining crops in intercrops, animals and trees in agro-silvo-
pastoral systems, using legumes as cover crops or in rotations or
raising fish in rice. More and more benefits emerge as biodiversity
increases in agroecosystems: there will be more beneficial
interactions, better resource use efficiency, higher associational
resistance to invaders and increased nutrient cycling. Farmer-
designed diversity should result in improved biotic diversity and
abiotic (soil, microclimate, etc.) conditions, which in turn will lead
to good system qualities or ecological processes characteristic of
healthy and productive farms. A farm can provide for its own soil
fertility, its own pest regulation, and so on, just by imitating the way
nature functions, allowing for interactions to occur between the
different soil, plant and animal components.

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 productive pastures and timber trees all combined in a system
that can be directly grazed by livestock, enhances total
productivity without need of external inputs. System where the
interactions of rice, weeds, insects, fish and ducks promote
key processes (nutrient cycling, pest control, etc.), allowing
the rice system to function without need of external inputs.

Fig1 Interactions of various agro-biodiversity components in a rice

paddy resulting in processes such as nutrient cycling and pest
regulation vital for the productivity of the system
Agroecology can be carried out at different scales/levels: plot,
field, and landscape (including surrounding plots and matrices of
vegetation surrounding the system). The plots could be used for
experiments, the results of which can be then brought onto real
farms where other elements of the landscape will add additional
complexities to the system. Agroecology principles (in terms of
design) can be applied at the large farm level, but the social and
political aspects need to be critically discussed. In any case, large
farms also need to transition towards being more sustainable.
Agroecology and traditional farmers’ knowledge
The evolution of agroecosystems is a result of interactions between
social and ecological systems. We need to understand how people

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 • Criteria for technology development considering local goals and
priorities, gender pref- erences, etc.; and
• A basis for testing new technologies and their ‘rightness-of-fit’
to local systems and circumstances.
Farmers have a deep knowledge of the ecosystem as they live
within it and interact with nature. In many instances, this knowledge
has been eroded and lost.

Fig 2 Basic Principles of Agroecological Systems

Fig 3- Synergies between pest and soil fertility management practices

that lead to optimal soil quality and plant health

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 MODULE - 2
ALL ABOUT SOIL

9
 ALL ABOUT SOIL
a . Soil Definition:
Soil is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and
organisms that together support life. Soil has four important functions:
it is a medium for plant growth; it is a means of water storage,
supply and purification; it is a modifier of Earth’s atmosphere; it is
a habitat for organisms; all of which, in turn, modify the soil.
b . Function of Soil:
Soil is a major component of the Earth’s ecosystem. Soil acts as
an engineering medium, a habitat for soil organisms, a recycling
system for nutrients and organic wastes, a regulator of water quality,
a modifier of atmospheric composition, and a medium for plant
growth, making it a critically important provider of ecosystem
services. Since soil has a tremendous range of available niches
and habitats, it contains most of the Earth’s genetic diversity. A
gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands
of species, mostly microbial and in the main still unexplored. Most
regions receive sporadic rainfall, the water-holding capacity of soils
is vital for plant survival. Soils provide readily available nutrients to
plants and animals by converting dead organic matter into various
nutrient forms.
c . Soil Composition

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Clay: Clay soil is composed of tiny particles that are hard and
able to become easily compacted. This compaction makes it difficult
to plant or even shovel within the [Link] clay soil can be difficult
to work with, it can be beneficial to the growth of certain plants. It
is able to hold onto the roots of plants better and provide a more
stable environment than many other types of soil.
Clay Loam: A fine-textured soil that breaks into clods or lumps
that are hard when dry. When the moist soil is pinched between
the thumb and finger, it will form a thin ribbon that will break readily,
barely sustaining its own weight.
Silty Clay: Silt has larger particles than clay and is mainly
inorganic in nature.A silty clay soil has a higher percentage of
clay than silt.
Sandy Loam: Sandy loam soils have a high concentration of sand
that gives them a gritty feel. In gardens and lawns, sandy loam
soils are capable of quickly draining excess water but can not hold
significant amounts of water or nutrients for your plants. Plants
grown in this type of soil will require more frequent irrigation and
fertilization.
Loamy Sand: This soil type is normally made up of sand mixed
with a majority of silt and clay. Many people prefer loamy sand soil
for their gardening because this type of soil normally allows for
good drainage.
Sand: This type of soil is easy to cultivate but, since it allows for
more drainage than needed, it is important to water it regularly,
especially during summer days. As sandy soils don’t allow the water
to pool around the roots, they are a good choice for plants that
have a tendency to suffer from root decay.

D. How to determine soil type

Texture indicates the relative content of particles of various sizes,
such as sand, silt, and clay in the soil. Texture influences the ease

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 If the ball sticks together, it is probably soil with enough clay in it.

The bottle test

How to find the approximate proportions of sand,
silt, and clay This is a simple test which will give you
a general idea of the proportions of sand, silt, and
clay present in the soil.
Put 5 cm of soil in a bottle and fill it with water.

Stir the water and soil well, put the bottle down, and do
not touch it for an hour. At the end of an hour, the water
will have cleared and you will see that the larger particles
have settled;
- On the surface of the water there may be bits of organic matter
floating;-On the top is a layer of clay. If the water is
still not clear, it is because some of the finest clay is
still mixed with the water;- In the middle is a layer of
silt;- At the bottom is a layer of sand;Measure the depth
of the sand, silt, and clay and estimate the approximate
proportion of each.
The following three types of particles can make up your soil are
clay, sand, and silt.
Most soils are a combination of these three particles, but the
particle type that dominates dictates many of the properties of
your soil.
The ratio of these sizes determines soil type: clay, loam, clay-
loam, silt-loam, and so on.
The ideal soil is 40% sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay. This mixture
is referred to as loam. It takes the best from each soil particle type.

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Corps pH Range* Corp pH Range*
Maize 5.5 - 7.5 Pineapple*** 5.0 - 6.5
Millet 5.5 - 8.0 Banana 5.5 - 7.5
Sorghum 5.0 - 8.0 Potatoes*** 5.0 - 7.0
Rice 5.0 - 7.0 Sweet Potatoes 5.0 - 7.0
Wheat 5.5 - 7.5 Tomato 5.5 - 7.0
Beans 5.8 - 7.5 Cabbage 6.0 - 7.0
Soyebeans 6.0 - 7.0 Lettuce 6.0 - 7.0
Peanuts 5.3 - 6.6 Onions 6.0 - 7.0
Cotton 5.5 - 6.5 Peppers 5.5 - 7.0
Tobacco** 5.5 - 7.5 Cucurbits 5.5 - 7.0
Sugarcane 6.0 - 8.0 Watermelon 5.0 - 7.0
Coffee 5.0 - 7.0 Alfalfa 6.2 - 7.8

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Soil Erosion causes, problems and remedies
Removal of top soil by different agents is called soil erosion. It
can be caused by deforestation, overgrazing, erosion by rivers,
manural removal of top soil, shifting cultivation. It affects the total
crop area, reduces fertility, reduces water percolation to the lower
layer which reduces water level.

Soil Conservation
Protection of soil from erosion and deterioration of its original
qualities is called soil conservation.
Measures for Soil Conservation:
1. Mulching
2. Terrace Farming
3. Perimeter Runoff Control
4. Windbreaks
5. Cover Crops/ Crop Rotation
6. Soil Conservation Farming
7. Agrostological Measures
8. No till farming
9. Green Manures
10. Salinity Management
11. Stream Bank Protection
12. Crop rotation

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1.2 Bark
These are good mulch materials because they contain more
moisture and retains this moisture for longer periods and helps in
the supply of moisture to the growing crop. It is commonly used
for vegetation and landscaping, it should be avoided to use in
vegetable fields because it is acidic. However, these mulches are
excellent for cover the paths between beds.

Grass Clipping
Grass clipping is one of the most easily and abundantly available
mulching material in Indian agriculture. If fresh grass clippings are
used in the field, it decomposes easily and increases the percentage
of nitrogen in the soil. The different types of grass clipping are
widely available such as green or fresh and dry grass. Normally,
green grass clippings are not used in the rainy season because it
may chance to the development of its own root systems which will
be harmful to crop growth. Apply of green clippings can heat up
quite a bit and possibly cause damage to plants. So, always the
dried grass always preferred to use as mulch. Apply to a depth of
2-3 inches.

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Straw
Straw is ideal for mulching because it is easily applying infield, stays in
place and reflects sunlight which helps to bear fruit in some vegetables. It
is used as winter protection and as a summer mulch in vegetable fields.
These mulches provide great insulation, water penetration and weed control.
The main advantageous property is that it does not contain weed seeds
itself. Straw mulches are avoided to use in high traffic areas due to its
highly inflammable properties. The thickness of the straw mulching is about
6 - 8 inches.

Compost/Manure
The compost is good mulch and soil conditioner it can easily
prepare or formed at home by composting of different types of waste
materials like leaves, straw, grass and plant residues, etc. The
availability and application of compost in Indian agriculture is old
age practice. It improves the soil properties like physical, chemical
and biological properties and enhances the carbon content which
improves the water retention capacity of the soil. Compost is the
good material for improving the soil health. It should not be used in
the vegetable field because they have too much nitrogen and it may
contain weed seeds. The excellent use of compost is at the time of

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the root zone. If it is applying near to or in contact with the stalk,
the trapped moisture creates an environment conductive to the growth
of diseases and pests. Many of organic mulches cause the breeding
spots for many insects and pests. Mulches such as hay and straw
contain seeds which may become weeds. These organic mulches
are easily biodegradable, and they can serve for the only short
period.
Criteria for the selection of mulching material
Cost of the material: If the suitable mulching material is available
at little or no cost then don’t buy mulching material. Use locally
available material.
The crop selected to mulch
Do not mulch with material from the crop which increases the
risk of conveying viruses or pest to the cultivated crops. Also, don’t
use that mulch material which contains weed seeds.
The period when the mulch is to be used
During summer season light, colored materials are beneficial as
a mulch they reflect the heat. During early spring season use of
dark colored materials are beneficial as a mulch it helps to warm
the soil which permit crop planting earlier and accelerate the growth
of crop.
Best time or way to applying mulch
Organic much apply in the late fall, after the saturating of soil
after initial heavy rainfall; or it may be applied in the late spring,
though soil has even retained moisture, but the soil has warmed. At
the beginning of the rainy season, the soil has moist and often heats
up, causing the soil to release steam. If we apply thick mulch now
the soil cannot breathe properly, and steam can’t release. Which
can increase the chances of many types of pest, insects and disease
to be appear. For balancing the soil and mulch to minimizing the
risk of occurring of any type of disease, after applying of mulch it

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temperature, earlier seedling growth, more and earlier flowering,
matured pod numbers, lower bulk density and minimum weed growth.
The number of leaves of okra plant formed under sawdust, trash
and no mulch treatment were 43, 36, and 27 respectively, and
maximum girth diameter under both treatment trash and sawdust
was 37 mm, but on control plot it reached only 26 mm dia. The yield
of fruits was almost comparable in both mulched treatment in trash
mulch 7.5 tonnes/ha. and in sawdust mulch 7.6 tonnes/ha. while in
control plot recorded 5.2 tonnes/ha. The dry matter of sawdust,
trash and no treatments ash content were 0.25, 0.20 and 0.17 kg,
respectively.
Effect of organic mulching on production
The yield and starch content of potato were higher by 27.9
percentage and 18.18 percentage respectively under paddy straw
mulch compared to un-mulched plot. The yield of tomato and okra
increased by 100 and 200 % in straw mulch (6 t/ha) applied condition
than over control treatment. The production of Okra was much higher
in straw mulch applied condition than dust mulch applied condition.
Increase in grain yield in sugarcane trash mulch, wheat straw mulch,
soybean straw mulch and inter culturing operation over control (no
mulch) was 12.64 percentage, 9.06 percentage, 7.46 percentage
and 3.74 percentage, respectively. The drip plus sugarcane trash
mulch treatment has recorded 53 percentage higher fruit yield.
Effect of mulching on soil
The starting of evaporation from mulched soil period is slightly
higher than the bare soil in the late stage. The total and available
soil moisture storage capacities are depending on porosity, texture
and structure of soil, it can develop with the help of organic mulching.
The wetting depth of soil is increases with increase of machining
rates Soil wetting depth increased with increases in mulch rates.
Based on these study, straw mulching has the ability of storing more
soil water from small amounts precipitation. The soil moisture
conserved is higher in straw mulch treatment which is about 55 %

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mud wall to prevent run off and hold the soil nutrients in the beds.
More commonly found in lesser developed nations due to the difficulty
of using mechanized farming equipment in the terraces.

Perimeter Runoff Control

This is the practice of planting trees, shrubs and ground cover
around the perimeter of your farmland which impedes surface
flows and keeps nutrients in the farmed soil. Using the grass way
is a specialized way of handling perimeter runoff that uses
surface friction to channel and dissipate runoff.
Windbreaks
Rows of tall trees are used in dense patterns around the
farmland and prevents wind erosion. Evergreen trees can provide
year round protection but deciduous trees can be adequate as
long as foliage is apparent during the seasons when the soil is
bare.

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Stream Bank Protection :
During floods, stream banks can often cave in. Preventing this by
constructing walls along the banks or plant useful tree species will
prevent this in the future and prevent soil loss down the stream.
Crop rotation :
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar or
different types of crops in the same area in sequenced seasons. It
is done so that the soil of farms is not used for only one set of
nutrients. It helps in reducing soil erosion and increases hence
decreases in the same place for many years in a row (Mono-
cropping) disproportionately depletes the soil of certain nutrients.
With rotation, a crop that leaches the soil of one kind of nutrient is
followed during the next growing season by a dissimilar crop that
returns that nutrient to the soil or draws a different ratio of nutrients.
In addition, crop rotation mitigates the buildup of pathogens and
pests that often occurs when one species is continuously cropped,
and can also improve soil structure and fertility by increasing
biomass from varied root structures. Crop rotation is used in both
conventional and organic farming technique. A great advantage of
crop rotation comes from the interrelationship of nitrogen fixing-
crops with nitrogen demanding crops. Legumes, like alfalfa and
clover, collect available nitrogen from the soil in nodules on their
root structure. When the plant is harvested, the biomass of
uncollected roots breaks down, making the stored nitrogen available
to future crops. Legumes are also a valued green manure: a crop
that collects nutrients and fixes them at soil depths accessible to
future crops. In addition, legumes have heavy tap roots that burrow
deep into the ground, lifting soil for better tilth and absorption of
water.

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 MODULE - 3
PLANT NUTRITION

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 PLANT NUTRITION
Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements and
compounds necessary for plant growth, plant metabolism and their
external supply. In 1972, Emanuel Epstein defined two criteria for
an element to be essential for plant growth:
1. In its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life
cycle.
2. Or that the element is part of some essential plant constituent
or metabolite.
The essential plant nutrients include carbon, oxygen and hydrogen
which are absorbed from the air, whereas other nutrients including
nitrogen are typically obtained from the soil
There are seventeen most important nutrients for plants. Plants
must obtain the following mineral nutrients from their growing
medium:-
· Macronutrients: Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K),
calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), magnesium (Mg), carbon (C),
oxygen(O), hydrogen (H)
· Micronutrients (or trace minerals): iron (Fe), boron (B), chlorine
(Cl), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo),
nickel (Ni)
Most soil conditions across the world can provide plants adapted
to that climate and soil with sufficient nutrition for a complete life
cycle, without the addition of nutrients as fertilizer. However, if the
soil is cropped it is necessary to artificially modify soil fertility through
the addition of fertilizer to promote vigorous growth and increase or
sustain yield. This is done because, even with adequate water and
light, nutrient deficiency can limit growth and crop yield.
Macronutrients (derived from air and water) Carbon
Carbon forms the backbone of most plant bimolecular, including
proteins, starches and cellulose. Carbon is fixed through

35
metabolism, but it does occur in all parts of plants in substantial
amounts. It seems to be of particular importance in leaves and at
growing points. Potassium is outstanding among the nutrient elements
for its mobility and solubility within plant tissues. Processes involving
potassium include the formation of carbohydrates and proteins, the
regulation of internal plant moisture, as a catalyst and condensing
agent of complex substances, as an accelerator of enzyme action,
and as contributor to photosynthesis, especially under low light
intensity.
Potassium regulates the opening and closing of the stomata by a
potassium ion pump. Since stomata are important in water regulation,
potassium regulates water loss from the leaves and increases drought
tolerance. Potassium deficiency may cause necrosis or interveinal
chlorosis. The potassium ion (K + ) is highly mobile and can aid in
balancing the anion (negative) charges within the plant. Potassium
helps in fruit coloration, shape and also increases its brix. Hence,
quality fruits are produced in potassium-rich soils. Potassium serves
as an activator of enzymes used in photosynthesis and respiration.
Important Micro-nutrients :
I ro n
Iron is necessary for photosynthesis and is present as an enzyme
cofactor in plants. Iron deficiency can result in inter-veinal chlorosis
and necrosis.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum is a cofactor to enzymes important in building amino
acids and is involved in nitrogen metabolism.

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 (K) Potassium – Older leaves may wilt, look scorched. Interveinal
chlorosis begins at the base, scorching inward from leaf
margins. Plants absorb potassium as an ion, which can be
readily leached from soil.

Nutrient Management in Crops

A . Composting
B . Bio Gas slurry
C . Green Manures
D . Bio fertilizers
E . Natural Fertilizer ( cow dung based)
A . Methods of composting
Good quality compost free from weeds, pathogens and rich in
nutrients is a prerequisite for adopting organic farming practice.
Different methods have been developed for the preparation of quality
compost from farm wastes. Depending upon the nature and quantity
of raw material available with farmer. Any one or combination of
following methods may be adopted for the production of compost.
· NADEP COMPOST
· NADEP PHOSPHO COMPOST
· VERMI COMPOST
· PITCHER KHAD

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although the plant nutrients are immediately available, they are slowly
released to last longer. Vermicompost is nothing but the excreta of
earthworms, which is rich in humus and nutrients. The process in
the alimentary canal of the earthworm transforms organic waste to
natural fertilizer. The chemical changes that organic wastes undergo
include deodorizing and neutralizing.
We can rear earthworms artificially in a brick tank, plastic bed
or near the stem / trunk of trees (especially horticultural trees). By
feeding these earthworms with biomass and watching properly the
food (bio-mass) of earthworms, we can produce the required
quantities of vermicompost.
Nutritive value of vermicompost
The nutrients content in vermicompost vary depending on the
waste materials that are being used for compost preparation. If the
waste materials are heterogeneous one, there will be wide range of
nutrients available in the compost. If the waste materials are
homogenous one, there will be only certain nutrients are available.
The common available nutrients in vermicompost is as follows
Organic carbon : 9.5 – 17.98%
Nitrogen : 0.5 – 1.50%
Phosphorous : 0.1 – 0.30%
Potassium : 0.15 – 0.56%
Sodium : 0.06 – 0.30%
Calcium and Magnesium : 22.67 to 47.60 meq/100g
Copper : 2 – 9.50 mg kg-1
Iron : 2 – 9.30 mg kg-1
Zinc : 5.70 – 11.50 mg kg-1
Sulphur : 128 – 548 mg kg-1
Advantages of vermicompost
· Vermicompost is rich in all essential plant nutrients.
· Provides excellent effect on overall plant growth, encourages
the growth of new

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Steps involved in Vermicompoting
1. Collection of organic wastes: shredding, mechanical
separation of the metal, glass and ceramics, plastics and
storage of organic wastes.
2. Pre digestion of organic waste for twenty days by heaping
the material along with cattle dung slurry. This process partially
digests the material and fit for earthworm consumption. Cattle
dung and biogas slurry may be used after drying. Wet dung
should not be used for vermicompost production.
3. Preparation of earthworm bed, a concrete or hard preferably
non-permeable base is required to put the organic waste for
vermicompost preparation. Loose soil will allow the worms
to go into soil and also while watering; all the dissolvable
nutrients go into the soil along with water. In plastic bed this
problem can be easily avoided and Vermi-wash (Excess water
containing nutrients) can be collected through a jug.
4. Collection of earthworm after vermicompost collection. Sieving
the composted material to separate fully composted material.
The partially composted material will be again put into
vermicompost bed.
5. Storing the vermicompost in proper place to maintain moisture
and allow the beneficial microorganisms to grow.
Factors contributing to good quality composting
Worms are the basic component of the vermicompost production
hence it needs to be provided with a good environment. The factors:
The bed in which Vermicompoting is done need to have proper
moisture content (Not very wet and not dry too, 50% water content),
the bed should not be filled very tight it will affect the breathing of
worms, worms breath through their skin if proper aeration is not
allowed then worms may get died. Precaution need to be taken to
avoid high heat exposure of the bed, if the bed gets very hot and
dry the worms will die.

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African earthworm Tiger worm or Red wrinkle Asian worms
( Eudrillus euginiae ) ( Eisenia foetida ) ( Perinonyx ecavatus )
Selection of site for vermicompost production
Vermicompost can be produced in any place with shade, high
humidity and cool. Abandoned cattle shed or poultry shed or unused
buildings can be used. If it is to be produced in open area, shady
place is selected. A thatched roof may be provided to protect the
process from direct sunlight and rain. The waste heaped for
vermicompost production should be covered with moist gunny bags.
Bed for vermi-compost production
A cement tub/ plastic bed/ Dry pit may be constructed to a height
of 2½ feet and a breadth of 3 feet. The length may be fixed to a level
depending upon the requirement of compost and availability of inputs
(Vegetable waste, cows). The bottom of the structure is made with
some slope like structure to drain the excess water from
vermicompost unit. A small jug is necessary to collect the drain water.
It is advisable to construct an elevated structure which will allow
in easy collection of Vermi-wash. Also, since there is no direct
contact with soil so it helps in keeping the Vermi-bed in good
condition for long time.
Materials for vermicompost production
Cattle dung (except pig, poultry and goat), farm wastes, crop
residues, vegetable market waste, flower market waste, agro
industrial waste, fruit market waste and all other bio degradable
waste are suitable for vermicompost production. The cattle dung

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is mixed in a container and covered with a cloth or gunny begs. The
material is fermented for 4-5 days. The fermented mixture is mixed
with water 200liter and sprayed over the crop in one acre area. Two
-three sprays are sufficient for short duration crops.
A. BIO GAS SLURRY:
Bio-gas slurry is good manure. Slurry is dried in solar drier. Dried
slurry is directly applied in fields.
B .GREEN MANURES:
Several green manure crops provide sufficient organic matter and
nitrogen for growing crops. Both legumes as well as non legumes,
however legume crops have inherent capacity to fix atmospheric
nitrogen hence these crops are preferred. Some leguminous green
manuring crops are Cow pea, Black Gram, Green Gram, Dhaincha
and sunhamp , these are most common green manure crops normally
used as a source of nutrients and organic matter. They have potential
to supply 60-90 kg nitrogen within a period ranging between 45-60
days. One tones Dhaincha dry matter add N 26,2Kg, P 7.3Kg, K
17.8Kg, S 1.9 Kg, Ca 1.4 Kg ,Mg 1.6 Kg , Zn 25ppm,Fe105 ppm Mn
39 ppm, Cu 7ppm per hectare in soil.
Seeds of these crops are broadcasted in the field during onset of
monsoon, it can be cultivated in barren lands and after that twigs,
tender shoots, leaves are collected and sprayed over the cultivable
plots. One more method is to grow the green manuring crops in the
main field itself, after 1-2 ploughing seeds of green manuring crops
are broadcasted over paddy field and then once they attain a height
of 2 feet they are buried in the plot. For dhaincha flowering starts in
6-8 weeks, and best time burring is the flowering stage.
C. BIO FERTILIZER:
Microorganisms like Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Rhizobium, Blue
green algae and Phosphate solubilizing bacteria are being used as
bio-fertilizer in different crops. These microorganisms promote plant
growth through different process like nitrogen fixation phosphate
solubilizer and production of plant growth substances. Blue green
algae and Azola are been successfully used as bio-fertilizer in paddy.

47
paddy field). Mix all the material thoroughly without mizing water,
keep it for 4 days, if possible keep it in a air-tight container. During
the 4 days, stir the mixture for 10 miutes for 2 times a day. After 4
days, mix 70 litre pof water in the mixture and apply it in crop field.
Make a ring around the plants and pur the liquid fertilizer in the ring.

Figure Jeewamrit Preparation

Sanjiwak Khad
Sanjiwak khad is a growth promoter as well as it increases disease
resistance of the crops. For preparation of 100 litre sanjiwak khad, required
66 litre water, 30 Kg fresh cow dung, 3 litre cow urine and 500 gm juggery.
Mix cow-dung, cow-urine and juggery and keep it in a drum, add 66 liter
water into the mixture and keep it for 10 -12 days. Keep the container
covered with a gunny bag, stir the mixture twice daily (once in the morning
and evening). Apply in base of the plant at a rate of 200 litre per acre.
Liquid compost
Mix 1 kg vermi-compost in 10 liter of water and keep it 48 hours, stir the
mix every 6 hours. Dilute it to 4 times with water and spray during flowering
phase of crops. It will enhance flowering in the crops.

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 MODULE - 4
NURSERY MANAGEMENT

51
 NURSERY MANAGEMENT FOR VEGETABLE CROPS
Success of any production system depends on the kind of seed
we are sowing”, so is true with seedlings. Healthy seedlings grown
in a well managed nursery will decide the yield and consequently
the profit.
“A vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for raising or
handling of young vegetable seedlings until they are ready for more
permanent planting.”
Some vegetables require special cares during their early growth
period. There are some vegetables with very small sized seeds.
These are first sown in the nursery for better care and to combat
with the time for field preparation and after about one month of
seed sowing, transplanted in the main field.
These vegetables are: tomato, brinjal,chilli, capsicum, cauliflower,
cabbage, knolkhol etc.
Advantages of Nursery Management:
· It is possible to provide favorable growth conditions i.e.
germination as well as growth
· Better care of younger plants as it is easy to look after nursery
in small area against pathogenic infection, pests and weeds.
· Crop grown by nursery raising is quite early and fetch higher
price in the market, so economically more profitable.
· There is saving of land and labour as main fields will be
occupied by the crops after 1 month. More intensive crop
rotations can be followed.
· More time is available for the preparation of main field because
nursery is grown separately.
S i t e Se l e c t i o n i s t h e f i r s t i m p o rt a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r
nursery management:
· Area selected should be well drained, and free from water
logging
· There should be proper sunlight,

53
Application of fungicides
Apply Trichoderma Vir dae 100gm per bed, mix T viridae with 10
kg well rotten FYM and then spread it in the nursery bed.
Nursery bed preparation
Nursery bed should be prepared according to the season and [Link]
the rainy season raised beds are prepared but in the winter and
summer season flat beds should be prepared. For the uniform and
high percentage of germination the soil must be fine and moist
enough.
If the seedlings are to be raised in boxes during unfavourable
weather condition, the flower pots, polythene bags, potting plugs,
wooden treys, earthen pots etc. may be used. Prepare soil mixture
in the ratio of 1:1:1 of soil, sand and well rotten FYM/leaf mould etc.
and fill the mixture in these seedlings raising structure. Arrangement
should be made to drain excess water from these structures by
making a hole in the bottom of all types of pots.
Raised nursery beds :
Length of the bed may be kept 3 to 5 meter; however, width is
restricted to 1 meter only which facilitates intercultural operations.
The beds are raised 15 to 20 cm high from the ground level. A
space of 30 - 40 cm is leaft in between two beds. The space between
two beds helps in weeding, nursery care against diseases and insect
pest and also for draining out the excess rain water from the nursery
beds. The number of beds depends on the particular crop, season
and growing area of crop. The beds should be prepared in the east
and west direction and line should be made from north to south
direction on the beds.
Sowing of seeds in the nursery :
After the seed bed preparation seeds are sown in the nursery
bed either by broadcasting or in lines depending upon the nature
and season of crop.
Broad casting method: In broadcasting method seeds are
broadcasted on the well prepared nursery beds and later on the
seeds are covered with well rotten fine sieved and treated FYM or
compost.

55
Removal of mulch
Due attention is given to remove the covered mulch from the
seedbed. After three days, observe the seed beds daily. As and
when the white thread like structure is seen above the ground, remove
the mulch carefully to avoid any damage to emerging plumules.
Always remove mulch in the evening hours to avoid harmful effect
of bright sun on newly emerging seedlings
Use of shedding net
After seed germination during the seedling growth, if there is
very high temperature (> 30 o C) then beds should be covered by
50% or 60% shedding nets of green/green + black coloured, about
60 - 90 cm above ground by the use of suitable support.
Watering
The nursery beds require light irrigation with the help of rose can
till the seeds get germinated.
Excess rainwater or irrigated water should be drained out from the
field as and when it is required otherwise plants may die due to
excess of water.
Watering in the beds depends upon the weather condition. If
temperature is high, open irrigation is applied. Need not to irrigate
the beds during rainy days.
Thinning
It is an important operation to remove weak, unhealthy, diseased,
insect pests damaged and dense plants from the nursery beds
keeping distance of about 0.5 to 1.0 cm from plant to plant.
The thinning facilitates balance light and air to each and every
plant. It also helps in watching the diseased and insect pest attacked
plants while moving around the nursery.
Weed control
Timely weeding in nursery is very important to get healthy seedling.
If there are some weeds in the seed bed, remove them manually
either by hand or by hand hoe (thin forked Khurpi).

57
Effect of hardening
The following effect may be observed by the hardening
· Hardening improves the quality and modifies the nature of
colloids in the plant cell enabling them to resist the loss of
water.
· Hardening increases the presence of dry matter and regards
in the plants but decrease the percentage of freezable water
and transpiration per unit area of leaf.
· Decreases the rate of growth in the plants
· Hardened plants can withstand better against unfavourable
weather conditions like hot day winds or low temperature
· Hardening of the plants increases the waxy covering on the
leaves of cabbage.

59
 MODULE - 5
ALL ABOUT SEEDS

61
 ALL ABOUT SEEDS
An encapsulated plant embryo is called seed. A seed is a fertilized
ovule containing the plant embryo.
Seed has major three parts. Different parts and its functions are
given below
1. Seed Coat: it’s a protective outer cover of a seed. It consists
of one or more protective layers that encase the seed. It may
be hard like in case of Coconut and it may be soft like bean
2. Embryo : It is the baby plant, it becomes the new plant Food
Supply: provides energy and nutrient, mainly starch for the
embryo to grow. That’s why seed does not need food from external
sources while germinating and during its growth stage in nursery.
3. Food Supply: provides energy and nutrient, mainly starch
for the embryo to grow. That’s why seed does not need food
from external sources while germinating and during its growth
stage in nursery.

63
• Seedlings produced will be more vigorous, fast growing and can
resist pest and disease incidence to certain extent
• Ensures uniform growth and maturity
• Development of root system will be more efficient that aids
absorption of nutrients efficiently and result in higher yield.
• Good quality seeds of improved varieties ensures higher yield
at-least 10 – 12 %
Quality of seed

Importance of quality seed

• Ensures genetic and physical purity of the crops
• Gives desired plant population
• Capacity to withstand the adverse conditions
• Seedlings produced will be more vigorous, fast growing and
can resist pest and disease incidence to certain extent
• Ensures uniform growth and maturity
• Development of root system will be more efficient that aids
absorption of nutrients efficiently and result in higher yield.
• Good quality seeds of improved varieties ensures higher yield
at-least 10 – 12 %
How to check quality of seed?
• High genetic purity ( 95-99%)
• High physical purity (95-98%)

65
A . How to prepare Beejamrit
1. Take 4 litre water, cow dung 1 kg, cow urine 1 litre, 10gm
lime, 5 gm turmeric powder, 100 gm jaggery and some fertile
soil.
2. Take 1kg cow dung on a piece of cloth and tie it and dip it in
four litre water for 24 hours
3. Soak 10 gm lime in 50 ml water for overnight
4. Squeeze the cloth which was dipped in the water to get the
extract and mix fertile soil with the mixture.
5. Add cow urine 1 litre, 10gm lime, 5 gm turmeric
powder, 100 gm jaggery and lime water mixture with the solution
and mix it properly. The mixture
is ready for seed treatment.

B. Seed treatment with beejamrit

Beejamrit can be used for all kind of seeds. Spread seed on a
jute bag and mix properly with hand and then keep under shed to
dry it. The dried seed is now ready for sowing.
Root of seedling can also be treated with it. Dip the root of the
seedling for 10 to 15 minutes and then transplant.

67
 MODULE - 6
PESTICIDE EFFECT
ON
HUMAN HEALTH

69
 PESTICIDE EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH
Pesticides are poisons and, unfortunately, they can harm more
than just the “pests” at which they are targeted. They are toxic, and
exposure to pesticides can not only cause a number of health effects,
but is linked to a range of serious illnesses and diseases in humans,
from respiratory problems to cancer.
Exposure
Exposure to pesticides can occur in many ways. Exposure can
occur in agriculture, through the treatment of crops, plants and grain
stores. It can occur in forestry, gardening, and professional and
domestic pest control and through the spraying and use of amenities
e.g. our parks, pavements and playgrounds. In addition, pesticide
residues found on, and in, our food also puts us at risk. Pesticides
can be acutely toxic. This means that they can cause harmful or
lethal effects after one single episode of ingestion, inhalation or
skin contact. The symptoms are evident shortly after exposure or
can arise within 48 hours.
Long term (or chronic) toxicity
Pesticides can cause harmful effects over an extended period,
usually following repeated or continuous exposure at low levels. Low
doses don’t always cause immediate effects, but over time, they
can cause very serious illnesses. Long term pesticide exposure has
been linked to the development of Parkinson’s disease; asthma;
depression and anxiety; cancer, including leukaemia and non-
Hodgkin lymphoma; and attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD). The term endocrine disruptor refers to substances that
interfere with hormones and hormone balance. Hormones are the
chemical messengers of the body. They are necessary to regulate
different functions , in particular growth and reproductive
[Link] endocrine effects can be activated by very low
concentrations of chemicals.

71
Absorption
Children absorb pesticides more easily through their skin. Not
only is a child’s skin more permeable than an adult’s, but their skin
surface area relative to body weight is also higher. This makes it
easier to absorb higher rates of pesticides. In fact, infants will absorb
around three times more pesticides than adults from similar exposure
episodes.
Children take in more air, water and food relative to their body
weight compared to adults. This increases their total exposure. For
example, the breathing rate of a child is roughly double that of an
adult. As a result, the amount of airborne contaminants reaching
the surface of the lung can be much higher.
Poisoning
Not only is exposure likely to be higher, but a child’s ability to
cope with pesticide poisoning will differ from that of an adult. The
systems that our bodies use to deal with toxins are less well developed
in children and this can make them less able to cope with these
substances. As they grow, children’s brains and bodies undergo
complex changes that affect tissue growth and organ development.
Incidents of exposure that would be tolerated by adults, can cause
irreversible damage to unborn babies, infants and adolescents.
Combined effects
Another problem is that the effect of an individual chemical can
be enhanced or changed if it is combined with another substance.
Every day we are exposed to a cocktail of chemicals and the fact is
that nobody knows what effect this consistent low level exposure to
such a mixture of chemicals is having on us.
Effect of pesticide on resources/environment
Impact on environment
Pesticides can contaminate soil, water, turf, and other vegetation.
In addition to killing insects or weeds, pesticides can be toxic to a
host of other organisms including birds, fish, beneficial insects,
and non-target plants. Insecticides are generally the most acutely
toxic class of pesticides, but herbicides can also pose risks to non-
target organisms.

73
 MODULE - 7
GINGER PROCESSING

75
 GINGER PROCESSING
Nutrient composition
Protein (2.3%), Fat (0.9%), carbohydrates (12.3%), mineral
(1.2%), fiber (2.4%) and moisture (80.9%) are the main constituents
of fresh ginger. Minerals like phosphorous, calcium, and iron present
in ginger are iron, calcium and phosphorous. It also contains vitamins
such as thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and vitamin C. The composition
varies with the type, variety, agronomic conditions, curing methods,
drying and storage conditions
Beneficial quality of ginger
Ginger is a popular digestive aid and it is famous for its medicinal
quality since its origin. Special active components have found in
ginger that is responsible for easy digestion or best we can say it
act as a trigger for digestion. It is also helps to get relieve from
constipation or any unwanted disorder related to digestion. Due to
its endless beneficial quality it has been used in Indian Ayurvedic
as well as in Chinese medicine since ancient time. In Chinese
medicine it was mainly used for easy transportation of body fluid as
it accelerate circulation of blood in our whole body due to its amazing
stimulatory effect on the heart muscle and by powerful capacity to
dilute the blood.
Though its excessive doses may cause certain problem but from a
study it was clear that it has no harmful effect on heart rate and blood
pressure, also it does not involved with at least one study indicates
that ginger has no effect on blood pressure, heart rate, or coagulation
parameters and does not involved with anticoagulant drugs like warfarin
(Weidner and Sigwart 2000). Later this result was again proven with
double confidence saying ginger has no effect on clotting status or
the pharmacokinetics or of warfarin in healthy subjects.
Ginger is used worldwide as an ingredient in food and medicine.
It has long been used to treat many gastrointestinal disorders and is
often promoted as an effective antiemetic (Bhattarai et al., 2011)

77
Native properties of the type grown
Native properties of ginger such as taste, flavor, aroma and color
will differ according to the different variety of ginger growing in
different part of the world. This affects their suitability for processing.
When preparing dried ginger it is most important to choose variety
of rhizomes with a strong flavor and aroma. Also the size of rhizome
plays an important role for ginger drying. In such situation medium
sized rhizome are more appropriate to choose otherwise in contrast
if we choose large rhizomes, it will not be suitable causing problems
with drying due to its high moisture content. Condition medium sized
rhizomes are the most suitable as the often have a high moisture
content which causes problems with drying.
After selecting the ginger based on our end use we should proceed
for processing which include some basic steps that are:
1. Cleaning 2. Sorting 3. Peeling
4. Drying 5. Grading and Packaging
Cleaning
Cleaning of harvested rhizomes should be necessary to remove
debris, shoots and roots. Thorough cleaning of rhizome required
immediately after harvest if ginger intended for export or for long-
term storage. It is recommended to wash the rhizome in clean
sanitized water with 150 ppm hypochlorous acid either by scrubbing
with hands or with a brush. Killing of rhizome was being followed by
traditional method, in which rhizomes were dipped in boiling water
for 10 min. This method is useful in inactivation of enzymatic
processes. Optimum sanitization by hypochlorous acid has found
to be possible at a water pH of 6.5. It has also recommended to
apply fungicidal treatment which can be done by adding fungicides
either in to the water at the time of washing or it may sprayed
separately. Fungicides like benomyl (500 ppm active ingredient) or
thiabendazole (1000 ppm) are recommended for this treatment.
Another mode of washing is pressure washing which tends to
reduce the microbial load more efficiently so it is preferred when
available.

79
transportation and for reduction of waste. It is the process of
removing the moisture up to a predetermined level by providing heat.
Moisture movement and heat transfer, these two phenomena occur
simultaneously in this process.
To give high yields with minimum cost to the village level processors
the Ginger rhizome processing methods should be imaginative .
Although various methods for drying of ginger are there but the
very common and traditional method mostly used by the farmer in
India is sun drying. Method of treating ginger after harvesting differs
according to the country in which it is grown. According to the
Indian Spice Board, general method for preparation of dry spices
required the following sequence:
· Soaking the rhizome with water and leaving it overnight
· Peeling/scraping with pointed-end bamboo splinters
· One week sun drying, Again soaking for 6 hours in water with
2% lime
· Final drying up to 8-10% moisture (Should not exceed 12%).
During drying the normal weight loss is 60- 70%.So drying of
ginger is very much beneficial for transportation purpose. A minimum
of 7 to 9 days is necessary to attain 7.8% to 8.8% moisture content
in case of sun- drying of peeled ginger where as a cross-flow drier
took only 5 to 6 hours for sliced ginger. But for drying of whole
ginger it will take minimum of 16 to 18 hours even if it has peeled.
So it can be noted that in accordance with method of drying, peeling
and proper size of rhizome also matter to reduce drying time.
It has found that more homogenous and cleaner product can be
obtained from mechanical drying but the essential oil content and
oleoresin content was found to be more in sun drying and solar
tunnel drying as compare to mechanical drying. Air flow and
temperature are the two important factors to be maintained properly
in case of hot air drying. In this case of mechanical drying, the
optimum drying temperature was considered as 60 °C because after
this critical temperature the loss of essential oil and oleoresin is
more than 12.2% and 5.3% respectively

81
 MODULE - 8
INTEGRATED PEST
MANAGEMENT

83
 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
Pest is any living plant or animal which affects the normal growth
of cultivated crops for its survival and multiplication. Pests can be
insects, mites, Fungi, Bacteria, Virus, Weeds, Nematodes, Rodents,
Birds and Mamal. Plant Damages can be caused by Biotic Agents
such as Insects, Fungi, Bacteria, Weeds and Nutrients. The a-biotic
agents of plant damages are Weather, Rains, and Temperature.
Effect of pest attack on crops
· Plant damage by making holes, rotting, spots etc.
· Increases cost of cultivation for pest management
· Yield reduction
· Product quality is inversely affected.
Insect and its damages to the crop:
An insect is a very small animal with particular characteristics.
Insects are invertebrates. They have no backbones. Most insects
walk, but some can fly and jump. Insects need water, air, and food
to live.
Most insects have five basic physical characteristics:

Fig: Rannung bung hrang hrang

· Insects have an exoskeleton or a hard, shell-like covering

on the outside of its body.
· Insects have three main body parts: head, thorax, and
abdomen.
· Insects have a pair of antennae on top of their heads.

85
 Tar spots are dark, shiny spots of resinous-like material
Sucking Pest life cycle: Sucking pests complete their life cycles
in three stages
Adult: Winged fly. Duration is three to five days. Very active but
can’t cause damage to plants.
Egg: Lays small eggs. Egg stage completes in 3-5 stages. Non
movable. No damage
Nymph: Most active. Nymph stage completes in 7 – 10 days. Cause
damage to plants.

Fruit and shoot borers:

Fruit and Shoot borers bores into young shoots and fruits.
Following are the major fruit and shoot borers:
· Brinjal fruit and shoot borer
· Bhendi fruit and shoot borer
· Cotton boll worms
Damage of Fruit and Shoot borers:
· Larval feeding inside shoots result in wilting of the young shoot
· The damaged shoots ultimately wither and drop off.
· Reduce the fruit number and size
· Destruction of fruit tissue – Unfit for marketing

87
Nemmastra
Effectiveness Materials Quan- Process Remarks
tity

Sap Sucking Cow Urine 5 Lts Crush the neem leaves, Can be
Insects add cow urine and cow stored
Cow Dung 1 Kg dung mix it thoroughly for 3
Neem Leaf 5 Kg and then add 100 litre months
water, keep it for 24
Water 100 Lts hours for fermentation
and then filter it using a
cloth then spray in field

Brahmastra
Effectiveness Materials Quan- Process Remarks
tity

Broad Cow Urine 10 Lts Take minimum 6 types of Can be

Spectrum Cow Dung 1 Kg leaves of the mentioned stored
leaves, crush then grind for 3
Neem Leaf 3 Kg
the leaves properly, each months
Custard type of leave need to be
2 kg
apple leaf grinded differently, add
Castor leaf 2 Kg the 10 L cow urine. Now
Pomgamia boil the mixture till it
2 Kg becomes 1/5th in
leaf
voulme. Keep it f or
Lantena leaf 2 Kg cooling and f urther
Papaya leaf 2 Kg f ermentation f or 48
Dhatura leaf 2 Kg hours. Filter it and spray
Guava leaf 2 Kg it in the ration 2 litre/ 50
Bitter gourd litre of water.
2 Kg
leaf

89
 Chilli Garlic Extract
Effectiveness Materials Quan- Process Remarks
tity
Stem Borer and Kerosene 250 ml Grind the green chilly after Cannot
Fruit Borer removing its petiole, add be
Garlic 0.5 Kg
3 litre water in it and keep stored
Surf 100 gm for overnight. Grind the
Green Chilly 3 Kg. garlic and 250 ml
kerosene added to it and
Water 100 L kept for overnight. Filter
both the solutions and mix
it properly. Add 100 gm
surf to it and then spray it
by mixing 100 litres of
water
a . Trap Crop, sticky traps and light trap
Trap crop is a crop which attracts pests more than the main
crop. Pests prefer trap crops for feed or oviposition. Pests are either
prevented from reaching the main crop or concentrated in certain
parts of the field away from the main crop. The principle of trap
crop relies on pest preference for certain crops or stages of crop
growth. Two preliminary techniques used in trap crops are:
Selection of more preferred species Planting of the same crop
before the main crop so that preferred stage of the development will
arrive earlier than the main crop.

Important aspects in trap crops

· Select a trap crop that is more attractive to pest than the main
crop
· Monitor trap crops regularly
· Immediately destroy the eggs that are found on the trap crop

91
Sticky trap:
Insects usually gets attracted to yellow color, so yellow color chart
papers, colored wooden planks, tin sheets can be used to attract
insect, some sticky substances/adhesives are used in the planks,
sheets, papers. When insect comes and sits over the chart paper it
gets stuck and dies.
Light trap
Armyworm, bugs, cutworm, flies, gnats, bollworm, leafhoppers,
planthoppers, stem borers are controlled by light trap.
Materials required are-
· Plastic buckets 5-10 lts.
· Metal light shade (2 nos.)
· Fluorescent light with holder
· Electrical wires
· Coated metal rods (4 nos.)
· Tin sheets
· String/ flexible wire
· Nut bolts & Screws
· Rubber plug for drainage hole
· Soap water or Kerosinized water

Fig: Light trap

93
TYPES OF NATURAL ENEMIES
Parasites, pathogens, and predators are the primary groups used
in biological control of insects and mites . Most parasites and
pathogens, and many predators, are highly specialized and attack
a limited number of closely related pest species.
Parasites
A parasite is an organism that lives and feeds in or on a host.
Insect parasites can develop on the inside or outside of the host’s
body. Often only the immature stage of the parasite feeds on the
host. However, adult females of certain parasites (such as many
wasps that attack scales and whiteflies) feed on and kill their hosts,
providing an easily overlooked but important source of biological
control in addition to the host mortality caused by parasitism. Most
parasitic insects are either flies or wasps. Parasitic wasps attack
aphids. Trichogrammatidae parasitize insect eggs. Aphelinidae,
Encyrtidae, Eulophidae, and Ichneumonidae are other groups that
parasitize insect pests. It’s important to note that these tiny to
medium-sized wasps are incapable of stinging people.
Pathogens
Natural enemy pathogens are microorganisms including certain
bacteria, fungi, nematodes, protozoa, and viruses that can infect
and kill the host. Populations of some aphids, caterpillars, mites,
and other invertebrates are sometimes drastically reduced by
naturally occurring pathogens. Some beneficial pathogens are
commercially available as biological or microbial pesticides. These
include Bacillus thuringiensis or Bt, entomopathogenic nematodes,
and granulosis viruses. Additionally, some microorganism by-
products, such as avermectins and spinosyns are used in certain
insecticides; but applying these products is not considered to be
biological control.
Predators
Predatory beetles, flies, lacewings, true bugs (Order Hemiptera),
and wasps feed on various pest insects or mites. Most spiders feed
entirely on insects. Predatory mites that feed primarily on pest spider
mites include Amblyseius spp., Neoseiulus spp.

95
 Figure 5 Garlic Neem leaves

Figure 6 : Green Chilly Tobacco leaf

1 . Plant Disease
The term disease is usually used for the destruction of live plants.
Plant diseases are caused by microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria
and viruses
Disease triangle:
It is important to understand that there are three conditions need
to be fulfilled for a disease to occur, one is a suitable host plant
which is preffered by that disease agent (Fungi, Bacteria and Virus),
Second is presence of the pathogen/ infectious bacterial or fungi
or virus. The third important condition is a suitable environment with
favored humidity and temperature for the agent to become active
and multiplicity.

97
2. Downy High humidity, Wide host range Symptoms usually
mildews leaf wetness and including onions; begin with yellowish
(individual cool to mild peas; lettuce; leaf spots which then
species temperatures celery; spinach; turn brown; downy
damage kale; herbs;
(10°C - 16 °C). growth appears on
particular cucurbits;
crop underside of leaves.
brassicas; Asian
families) leafy brassicas.

99
4. Clubroot Warm weather; Brassicas Plants are yellow
(Plasmodi- acidic soil (pH (including and stunted and
o p h o r a less than 7); high Asian leafy may wilt in hotter
brassicae) soil moisture. brassicas). parts of the day;
large malformed
‘clubbed’ roots
which prevent the
uptake of water and
nutrients, reducing
the potential yield
of the crop.

101
7. Sclerotium- S. rolfsii – Warm, S. rolfsii – Wide S. rolfsii – Lower
rots moist conditions. host range stem and root rots;
(Sclerotium S. cepivorum – including: coarse threads of
rolfsii and Development is beans; beets; white fungal growth
S. favoured by cool carrot; potato; surround the
cepivorum) soil conditions tomato; diseased areas;
(14 C-19 C) and
o o
capsicum; small brown fungal
low moisture. cucurbits.S. resting bodies. S.
cepivorum – cepivorum–
only affects Yellowing and
onions, garlic wilting; fluffy fungal
and related growth containing
Alliums (shallots; black sclerotia forms
spring onions; at the bases of
leeks). bulbs.

103
10. Anthrac- Cool, wet Wide range of Typical symptoms
nose conditions. crops including: begin with sunken
(Colletotri- lettuce; celery; and water-soaked
chum spp. beans; spots appearing on
except for cucurbits; leaves, stems and/or
in lettuce – tomato, fruit.
Microdo- capsicum;
chium potato; globe
panatton- artichoke.
ianum)

11. Rhizoctonia Warm, humid Wide host Range of

rots weather; can range including: symptoms
(Rhizoctonia survive for long lettuce; potato; depending on the
solani) – periods in the soil brassicas;beans; crop being grown
range of in the absence of a peas; beets;
common but can affect roots,
host plant. carrots; leaves, stems,
names,
e.g. capsicum; tubers and fruit;
Bottom rot tomato; plants wilt and may
(lettuce) cucurbits. collapse and die.
and Wire
stem
(Brassicas)

105
13. Cavity spot Growing carrots Carrots. Cavity spots are
(Pythium after carrots; small elliptical lesions
sulcatum) acidic soil; not often surrounded by
harvesting carrots a yellow halo.
as soon as they
reach marketable
size.

14. Tuber Potato and Potato tubers may be

diseases sweetpotato. infected with
(Various superficial skin
species) diseases, such as
common scabs,
powdery scab, and
Rhizoctonia.
Sweetpotatoes may
be infected by scurf.

107
B. Bacterial Diseas :
Sl. Bacterial Factors conducive
Crops affected Symptoms
No. disease to spread
1. Rusts Wind can Sweet corn; Small, red or
(several spread spores beans; onions; reddish-brown
species, great distances; spring onions; pustules that form on
e.g. favoured by low beets; celery; the underside of the
Puccinia rainfall, 100% silverbeet; leaves and
sorgh i– relative humidity endive. sometimes on the
sweet and cool to mild pods as well; dusty
corn; temperatures. reddish-brown spores
Uromyces released from
appendi - pustules (may be
culatus – black in cold
beans; weather).
Puccinia
allii –
spring
onions).

109
4. Bacterial Overhead Range of Lettuce – Large
leaf spot/ irrigation and vegetables brown to black
Bacterial windy including lettuce; circular areas that
spot conditions. cucurbits; start as small
(Xantho- tomato; translucent spots;
monas capsicum. usually on outer
campestris leaves. Tomatoes and
- various capsicums – Greasy
strains) spots on leaves and
stems that go from
tan to black; fruit may
have circular spots
with central scab.
Cucurbits – Begin as
small water-soaked/
greasy spots on
underside of leaves
with corresponding
yellowing on upper
side; fruit may
produce light-brown
ooze from water-
soaked markings.

111
[Link] diseases:
Viruses, crops affected, and damage caused:
Means of transmission: Aphid
Vir us Host plants Primary damage
Bean common Beans Mottling, curling, and
mosaic virus malformation of leaves and
a general stunting of the
plant.
Cucumber Capsicum; tomato; Chlorosis and blistering
mosaic and potato; celery. mottle of leaves; plants are
potato mosaic stunted.
virus
Carrot virus Y Carrot. Severe root symptoms in
carrots including shortened
root
P o t a t o l e a f r o l l Potato. Stunted plants; lower leaves
virus roll upwards at the margins,
develop leathery texture
and die prematurely.

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Means of transmission: Whitefly
Virus Specific vector Host plants Primary damage
B e g a m o - Silverleaf whitefly French beans; Affected plants stunted’
viruses - cucurbits; interveinal chlorosis
To m a t o capsicum; develops; leaves bent
yellow leaf several weed downwards and
curl virus species. stiffened; fruit quality
(TYLCV) reduced.

Beet Greenhouse Lettuce; beet; Chlorosis or yellowing

pseudo- whitefly endive; between veins in older
yellows cucumber; cucumber leaves, with
virus common weeds. symptoms spreading to
younger leaves; severely
(BPYV)
affected plants stunted.
T o m a t o Both Greenhouse Capsicum; Early symptoms include
t o r r a d o and Silverleaf eggplant; weeds necrotic or dead spots;
virus (ToTV) whitefly, including affected areas may fall
Amaranthus, out, leaving shot holes in
Atriplex, the leaflets; necrosis and
Chenopodium, mottling also extends to
and Malva. the remainder of the
leaves.
Means of transmission: Tobamoviruses
Not transmitted by any insects, remains in the environment
Virus Host plants Primary damage
Tobacco Crop plants and weeds: Mosaic; mottling; leaf distortion;
mosaic virus eggplant; tomato; bok choy;
and sometimes leaf death
choy sum; bitter melon;
and defoliation.
Chinese mustard;
long melon; snake bean;
Chinese cabbage.
Tomato Tomato capsicum
mosaic virus
Pepper mild Capsicum including
mottle virus A mild mosaic or mottle.
chillies

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 a. Biological control
Top of Form
In organic disease control, natural materials (things found in nature
or that exist in the environment) can be used to inhibit or prevent the activity
of plant pathogens.

Organi c Target pathogen on one or more of the

control product label
Material
Copper Altemaria, Erwinia, pseudomonas, xanthomonas,
cercospora, colletotrichum , powdery mildew,
downy mildew, phytophthora, pythium .
Mycosphaerella, phomopsis, taphrina, elsinoe,
gnomonia, fusicladium, nectria, phyllosticta,
diclocarpon, albugo, guignardia, botrytis,
exobasidium, entomosporium, pestalotia,
phoma, cristulariella.
Oil derived form
Powdery mildew.
plants extract
Potassium
Powdery mildew
bicarbonate
Potassiom Powdery mildew, pythium, botrytis, fusarium.
silicate
Sulfur Powdery mildew.

‘Biological’ control of a plant disease involves the use of one

living organism to inhibit the activity of a living plant pathogen. Biological
control agents (BCAs) are registered for use by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and have labels very similar to those for
chemical pesticides. Below is a partial list of BCAs and the pathogens
listed on at least one of the product labels as being controlled:

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of the target fungi. This process (mycoparastitism) limits growth
and activity of plant pathogenic fungi. Mycoparasites produce cell
wall-degrading enzymes, which allow them to bore holes into other
fungi and extract nutrients for their own growth.
Target diseases :
Pythium spp., Ganoderma spp., Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium
spp., Botrytis cinerea, Sclerotium spp., Sclerotinia sp. and Ustilogo
spp, etc.
Frequency of application :
Two to three applications in vegetables ornamentals and 4-5
applications in lawns and landscape crops are recommended.
Applications during early stages of plant growth protect the plant
during critical stages of development.
Dosage :
Soil application: 5 kg /ha along with any organic fertilizer (without
pathogenic contaminants). Seed treatment: @ 4-5 gm per kg of
seeds as per standard wet treatment. Seedling treatment: @ 100 g/
l prior to planting.
a . Use of indigenous varieties
b . Seed treatment
Seed borne infestation of insects and diseases pose devastating
consequences to crop production. The concept of seed treatment is
the use and application of biological and chemical agents that
basically can control or contain primary soil and seed borne
infestation. This helps to improve crop safety which in turn leads to
good establishment of healthy and vigorous plants which results in
better yields. The benefit of seed treatment leads to increased
germination and ensures uniform seedling emergence. As already
seen it protects seeds and seedlings from early season diseases
and insect pests thereby improving crop emergence and growth.
Treating seeds with Rhizobium also enhances the nitrogen fixing
capability of legume crops and their productivity. Overall seed

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Ground nut. For any variety of seed spraying of cow milk and water
mix with 1:9 ratio and drying under shade will be beneficial
Seed Treatment for fungal diseases
Large number of microbes present in the cow dung and urine
which are useful for controlling many fungal diseases. Nutrients
present in the solution are useful for effective plant growth. This
can be applied for two to three in a crop period. Cow dung – 5Kgs,
Cow urine – 5lts, Lime – 150grs
Proc ess:
Store 5Kg cow dung, 5lts of cow urine and 5lts of water in a tub,
Cover the tub and allow the solution for fermentation for 4days. Stir
the solution with a stick every day, After 4days filter the solution
and add 150grs of lime to it, Add 100lts of water to the solution to
spray it in 1 acre.

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