CHAPTER 2: SOIL FORMATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Definition
o Soil formation (pedogenesis) is the process of transformation of rock and organic matter
into soil through the combined action of climate, organisms, relief, parent material, and
time.
o Each factor influences the type, depth, and properties of soil formed.
Main Soil Forming Factors (CLORPT)
o Climate (cl) – temperature and rainfall affect the rate of weathering, leaching, and biological
activity.
o Organisms (o) – plants, animals, and microorganisms add organic matter and help mix the
soil.
o Relief (r) – slope, altitude, and aspect influence drainage, erosion, and depth of soil.
o Parent Material (p) – the mineral or organic material from which soil develops.
o Time (t) – the duration during which the above factors act to develop horizons and
structure.
Functional Relationship
s=f(cl,o,r,p,t,…)
where s = soil property. This means soil characteristics are a function of the combined influence
of the five major factors.
Minor Factors
o Dust and mineral deposition from the atmosphere, fire, and human influence can also
affect soil development.
How the Factors Work Together
o Parent material & relief → provide initial conditions for soil development.
o Climate & organisms → determine the rate and type of soil-forming reactions (weathering,
leaching, decomposition).
o Time → determines how far the processes have gone.
o Together, they form a sequence:
Environment → Processes → Soil Properties
Soil-Forming Sequences
✓ When one factor varies while others remain constant, soils form identifiable patterns:
✓ These sequences help understand how soil properties change with one controlling factor.
Sequence Type Dominant Description
Factor
Climosequence Climate Soils vary with rainfall or temperature (e.g., desert vs.
tropical soils).
Biosequence Organisms Soils differ under forest, grassland, or shrub vegetation.
Toposequence Relief Soils differ along slope positions (summit → toeslope).
Lithosequence Parent Material Soils differ because of different rock or sediment origins.
Chronosequence Time Soils differ by age or stage of development.
2.2 CLIMATE
Importance
o Climate is the most powerful soil-forming factor.
o It determines the rate of chemical and biological reactions.
o The two key climatic elements are moisture and temperature.
2.2.1 Soil Moisture
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Factors Controlling Soil Moisture
o Type & intensity of precipitation – determines water input.
o Seasonal rainfall pattern – dry and wet seasons affect leaching and evaporation.
o Evaporation and transpiration rates – depend on temperature, humidity, and vegetation
cover.
o Slope and aspect – control surface runoff and exposure to sunlight.
o Soil depth – deeper soils store more water.
o Texture and permeability – sandy soils drain faster; clayey soils hold more moisture.
Water Balance Equation
P=ET+SR+I±S
where:
o P = Precipitation (rainfall)
o ET = Evapotranspiration (water lost by evaporation + plant transpiration)
o SR = Surface Runoff
o I = Infiltration (water entering soil)
o S = Change in Soil Moisture Storage
This shows the relationship between water entering and leaving the soil system.
Moisture Estimation Methods
o Thornthwaite Equation:
✓ Estimates potential evapotranspiration based on air temperature.
o Penman–Monteith Equation:
✓ Advanced method using solar radiation, humidity, temperature, and wind speed.
✓ Gives accurate estimation for crops and natural vegetation.
o Curve Number Method (USDA):
✓ Estimates infiltration and runoff based on land use and soil type.
o Simulation Models:
✓ SWAT – Soil and Water Assessment Tool
✓ WEPP – Water Erosion Prediction Project
Topographic Effects (Beven et al., 1979)
• Wetness Index
o A → Specific catchment area
✓ This is the upslope contributing area
✓ In GIS terms, it represents how much land drains into a given cell or point.
o β → Slope angle
✓ Derived from the Digital Elevation Model (DEM).
✓ The tangent of the slope reflects how steep the terrain is.
Interpretation
o High WT → Indicates wetter soils
✓ Found in valleys, depressions, or flat areas where water accumulates.
o Low WT→ Indicates drier soils
✓ Found on ridges or steep slopes where runoff is faster.
Applications
o Hydrological and soil moisture modeling
o Predicting soil saturation and runoff patterns
o Mapping wetlands or flood-prone areas
o Used in GIS software (e.g., ArcGIS, QGIS, SAGA GIS) with DEM data.
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Effect of Soil Depth and Texture
o Deep soils: store more water.
o Shallow soils: limited storage → dry quickly.
o Texture effect:
✓ Sandy → low moisture.
✓ Silty → moderate.
✓ Clayey → high moisture.
Climatic Influence on Soil Moisture Movement
Climate Water Effect
Movement
Humid Downward Leaching of minerals; clay moves to lower horizons.
Arid Upward Evaporation draws water upward; salts accumulate at surface
(caliche or pans).
2.2.2 Temperature
Controls of Temperature
o Latitude: Higher latitude → lower temperature.
o Altitude: Temperature drops by ~0.5°C per 100 m rise.
o Solar radiation: Increases with elevation, decreases with clouds/pollution.
o Soil color: Dark soils absorb more heat (low albedo).
o Vegetation: Shades soil; reduces heating.
o Aspect: South-facing slopes (N. Hemisphere) receive more sun → warmer and drier.
Effects on Soil Formation
o Chemical weathering: Faster in warm, moist climates.
o Biological activity: Doubles for every 10°C rise (until ~35°C).
o Freeze–thaw cycles: In cold regions, cause physical breakdown of rocks.
o Organic matter: Decomposes faster in hot climates → less humus accumulation in tropics.
2.3 ORGANISMS
Role in Soil Formation
o Organisms include plants, animals, microorganisms, and humans.
o They contribute to organic matter addition, mixing, aeration, and nutrient cycling.
2.3.1 Vegetation
o Adds organic matter through litter and roots.
o Roots break rocks mechanically and chemically.
o Litter influences soil acidity and structure.
Vegetation Type Effect on Soil
Pine/Heather Acidic litter → low fertility, poor structure
Deciduous trees Neutral litter → high fertility, good structure
Grassland Adds organic matter to topsoil, promotes thick A horizon
2.3.2 Soil Fauna (Macro & Meso Fauna)
o Macrofauna: Earthworms, termites, ants, beetles, burrowing animals (moles, rabbits).
o Meso/Microfauna: Mites, collembola, nematodes.
Functions
o Mix litter with mineral soil → improve structure.
o Create burrows → enhance aeration and drainage.
o Aid decomposition by fragmenting organic matter.
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Earthworm Biomass (White, 1987)
Land Use Biomass (kg/ha)
Hardwood forest 370–680
Coniferous forest 50–170
Pasture 500–1500
Arable land 16–760
2.3.3 Microorganisms
o Include bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, and protozoa.
o Functions
✓ Decompose organic matter (humus formation).
✓ Mineralize nutrients (convert organic → inorganic).
✓ Fix nitrogen (Rhizobium bacteria).
✓ Release soil enzymes.
o Most active in top 15–25 cm (root zone).
2.3.4 Human Influence
o Agriculture: tillage, irrigation, and fertilizers change soil properties.
o Machinery: compaction reduces infiltration and root growth.
o Urbanization: removes vegetation, increases erosion.
o Positive actions: liming acidic soils, organic amendments improve fertility.
2.4 RELIEF (TOPOGRAPHY)
Definition
o Relief refers to the shape, height, and slope of the land surface.
o It affects drainage, erosion, runoff, sunlight exposure, and soil thickness.
Topographic Attributes and Effects
Attribute Meaning Influence
Altitude Elevation above sea level Affects temperature, rainfall, vegetation.
Slope Steepness of land Determines runoff, erosion, soil depth.
Aspect Direction slope faces Controls sunlight, evaporation, and
vegetation.
Catchment Area draining to a point Affects water movement and saturation.
area
Curvature Shape of slope Affects water accumulation and erosion.
(concave/convex)
Landform Elements (Based on Position)
o Summit – well-drained, red oxidized soils.
o Backslope – moderately drained.
o Footslope – poorly drained, mottled colors.
o Toeslope – very poorly drained, grey gleyed soils.
Relief Effects on Soil Properties
o Steep slopes → erosion → shallow, less developed soils.
o Gentle slopes → deposition → deep, fertile soils.
o Slope and curvature control movement of water and sediments.
o Relief influences local temperature and moisture (microclimate).
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Catena Concept (Milne, 1935)
o A catena (Latin: “chain”) is a sequence of soils down a slope, developed from the same
parent material but under different drainage and erosion conditions.
✓ Summit: well-drained → red soils
✓ Mid-slope: moderately drained → yellowish soils
✓ Valley bottom: poorly drained → grey, gleyed soils
2.5 PARENT MATERIAL (P)
o The original material (rock, sediment, or organic deposit) from which a soil forms.
Types of soil based on P
o Residual soils – formed directly on weathered bedrock.
o Transported soils – material moved by:
✓ Water (alluvial soils)
✓ Wind (aeolian soils)
✓ Ice (glacial soils)
✓ Gravity (colluvial soils)
o Organic soils – formed from decomposed plant remains (peat, muck).
Influence of P on Soil Formation
o Texture: coarse → sandy soils; fine → clayey soils.
o Mineral composition: affects nutrient availability.
o Structure and stratification: influence permeability.
o Chemical composition: determines the type of clay minerals and fertility.
o Porosity: affects drainage and aeration.
2.6 TIME
o Controls how long weathering and soil-forming processes have acted.
o Longer periods → more developed soils with distinct horizons.
Types of Soils Based on Time
Type Meaning
Monogenetic soils Formed under one stable set of conditions.
Polygenetic soils Formed under changing conditions (e.g., climate shifts).
Stages of Soil Development
1. Parent Material: Unweathered rock or deposit.
2. A Horizon Formation: Organic matter accumulates at the surface.
3. B Horizon Formation: Clay minerals and oxides accumulate.
4. E Horizon Formation: Leaching (eluviation) removes materials from above.
5. Illuvial Horizon: Accumulated materials deposit below the E horizon.
Example of soil foration based on age
o Old soils: found on ancient rocks (granite, basalt) in Africa or Australia.
o Young soils: in river valleys or recent landslides — less weathered.
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Conclusion
Factor Description Major Effect on Soil
Climate Temperature & rainfall Controls weathering, leaching, organic matter
decomposition
Organisms Plants, animals, Add organic matter, mix soil, affect pH
microbes
Relief Land shape & slope Influences drainage, erosion, and moisture
Parent Original rock or Determines mineral composition and texture
Material sediment
Time Duration of formation Controls maturity and horizon development