CHAPTER TWO
CONCEPTUAL ISSUES AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual Issues
2.1.1 Concept of Climate Change
Climate change refers to a long-term alteration in global or regional
climate patterns, particularly apparent from the mid to late 20th century
onward, primarily attributed to increased levels of atmospheric carbon
dioxide produced by fossil fuel use (IPCC, 2021). It manifests through
rising global temperatures, shifts in rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts,
extreme weather events, and melting ice caps. Climate change is driven
by both natural factors such as volcanic eruptions and solar variations,
and anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, industrialization, and
burning of fossil fuels (Ozor & Nnaji, 2020).
2.1.2 Concept Of Water Resources
Water resources refer to all surface and groundwater sources that are
useful or potentially useful to humans, including rivers, lakes, reservoirs,
and aquifers (Okafor & Ogbu, 2018). They are vital for domestic use,
agriculture, industry, and ecological balance. However, these resources
are highly sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation patterns.
A reduction in rainfall or an increase in temperature can alter river
discharge, reduce groundwater recharge, and increase water demand,
leading to water stress and scarcity (Adejoh et al., 2020).
2.1.3 Climate Change and Water Resources Relationship
Climate change affects the hydrological cycle by influencing rainfall
intensity, timing, and frequency, as well as evaporation and transpiration
rates (NIMET, 2022). In sub-Saharan Africa, changes in temperature and
rainfall distribution have caused water shortages, drying of streams, and
seasonal water variability. For instance, studies in northern Nigeria show
declining rainfall and increasing temperature trends, resulting in reduced
surface water and groundwater recharge (Olorunfemi & Raheem, 2019).
Therefore, understanding this relationship is crucial for ensuring
sustainable water management, particularly in semi-arid regions like
Zaria.
2.1.4 Awareness of Climate Change
Climate change awareness refers to the level of knowledge,
understanding, and concern individuals or communities have about the
causes, consequences, and possible solutions to climate-related issues
(Bambale et al., 2023). Awareness is influenced by education, access to
information, and personal experience of environmental changes. High
awareness can lead to behavioral changes, such as water conservation
and support for environmental policies. In rural and peri-urban areas,
awareness tends to be lower due to limited access to environmental
information and low literacy levels (Nzeadibe & Egbule, 2021).
2.1.5 Institutional and Government Interventions
Government and organizational interventions play a vital role in mitigating
the effects of climate change on water resources. These interventions
include policy formulation, public awareness campaigns, infrastructure
development, and promotion of sustainable water management practices.
In Nigeria, institutions such as the Nigerian Meteorological Agency
(NIMET), the Federal Ministry of Environment, and River Basin
Development Authorities (RBDAs) are responsible for climate monitoring
and adaptation initiatives (NIMET, 2022). However, implementation
challenges, weak governance, and inadequate funding often limit their
effectiveness (Odjugo, 2010).
2.1.6 Coping and Adaptive Strategies
Coping strategies are short-term responses adopted by individuals or
communities to manage the immediate effects of climate change, while
adaptive strategies involve long-term adjustments to minimize
vulnerability (FAO, 2018). In water resource management, these may
include rainwater harvesting, borehole drilling, use of water-efficient
irrigation techniques, and community-based water management. In Zaria
and similar semi-arid areas, households often adapt through seasonal
migration, water rationing, and reliance on alternative water sources
during dry periods (Audu et al., 2019).
2.2 Literature Review
This study adopts the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) as its
guiding theory. The SLF, developed by the United Kingdom’s Department
for International Development (DFID, 1999), explains how individuals and
communities use available assets—natural, human, social, financial, and
physical—to sustain their livelihoods in changing environmental
conditions.
Under this framework, climate change acts as a shocking event that
affects the natural capital (water resources). Households respond through
adaptation and coping strategies, while institutions and policies shape
their vulnerability and capacity to respond. The framework is relevant to
this study because it integrates awareness, institutional support, and
coping responses—key variables in understanding the climate–water
nexus in Zaria L.G.A.
2.3 Theoretical Framework
Several theories explain the relationship between climate change and
water resource systems. This study adopts the Hydrological Cycle
Disruption Theory and the Vulnerability-Resilience Framework.
2.3.1 Hydrological Cycle Disruption Theory
This theory emphasizes that climate change alters the natural water
balance through changes in temperature, rainfall, and evapotranspiration.
When rainfall becomes erratic or extreme, the timing and quantity of
water availability are disrupted, leading to droughts, floods, or both
(Gleick, 2015). In the context of Zaria, variations in rainfall and
temperature patterns influence river discharge, groundwater recharge,
and dam water levels, affecting overall water availability.
2.3.2 Vulnerability-Resilience Framework
This framework evaluates how human and ecological systems respond to
climate-related stress. Vulnerability is the degree to which a system is
susceptible to harm, while resilience refers to the ability to recover or
adapt (Adger, 2006). Communities in Zaria that rely heavily on surface
water and rain-fed agriculture are highly vulnerable but can build
resilience through adaptive strategies such as water harvesting, efficient
irrigation, and awareness campaigns.
2.4 Empirical Review
2.4.1 Global Studies
Globally, climate change has been shown to have significant impacts on
water availability and quality. According to the IPCC (2021), regions in
Africa, Asia, and Latin America are experiencing more frequent droughts
and floods due to altered rainfall patterns. Kundzewicz et al. (2018) found
that water scarcity in many developing countries is expected to worsen
due to increased evaporation and reduced rainfall.
In Asia, Mishra and Singh (2020) reported that seasonal rainfall variability
and glacial melt have reduced river discharge, affecting millions of people
dependent on agriculture. Similarly, research in East Africa by Conway et
al. (2019) demonstrated that changes in rainfall and temperature are
directly linked to declining groundwater recharge and surface water
availability.
2.3.2 Climate Change and Water Resources in Africa
In Africa, the impacts of climate change on water resources are
increasingly evident. Arnell et al. (2019) found that over 25% of the
African population faces chronic water stress due to changes in rainfall
and runoff. The Sahel region, which includes northern Nigeria, has
experienced frequent droughts and erratic rainfall since the 1970s.
In Ghana, Nyantakyi-Frimpong and Bezner-Kerr (2015) noted that
smallholder farmers experience declining water availability due to
shortened rainy seasons. In Ethiopia, Tesfaye et al. (2020) observed that
temperature increases have led to reduced streamflow, affecting irrigation
and domestic water supply.
2.3.3 Studies in Nigeria
Several studies in Nigeria have examined climate change and water
resources. Odjugo (2010) found a steady increase in mean annual
temperature and irregular rainfall patterns across the country,
contributing to the drying of rivers and reduced groundwater levels.
Okafor and Ogbu (2018), in their study of the Kaduna River Basin,
discovered that annual rainfall decreased significantly between 1980 and
2015, while temperatures rose, reducing freshwater availability. Similarly,
Audu et al. (2019) reported that farmers in northern Nigeria have adopted
coping strategies such as rainwater harvesting and early planting to
reduce the impact of water shortages.
Bambale et al. (2023) assessed climate change awareness in Zaria and
found that most residents were aware of changing weather patterns but
lacked scientific understanding of the phenomenon. Their study
emphasized the need for more public education and institutional
collaboration.
2.3.4 Governmental and Organizational Interventions
The Nigerian government has initiated several policies and programs to
address climate change impacts, including the National Policy on Climate
Change (NPCC, 2021), Nigeria Climate Change Act (2021), and National
Adaptation Strategy and Plan of Action (NASPA, 2019). These frameworks
promote integrated water resource management, afforestation, and
community-based adaptation.
However, implementation remains weak at the local level. According to
Ebele and Emodi (2016), lack of funding, poor coordination among
agencies, and limited technical capacity hinder effective climate
adaptation. Non-governmental organizations such as NEST (Nigerian
Environmental Study/Action Team) and WaterAid Nigeria also implement
awareness campaigns and community adaptation projects, but their reach
in rural LGAs like Zaria is limited.
2.3.5 Local Coping and Adaptation in Northern Nigeria
In semi-arid areas of Kaduna, Kano, and Katsina States, households
employ both traditional and modern adaptation practices. These include
digging deeper wells, constructing reservoirs, using water-saving irrigation
techniques, and relying on communal water sharing (Adejoh et al., 2020).
In Zaria, many residents rely on boreholes, wells, and rainwater harvesting
during wet seasons to cope with shortages. Some communities also
participate in environmental sanitation and tree planting programs aimed
at reducing runoff and enhancing water infiltration.
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