Introduction:-
Man is not only a social and biological being but also a spiritual being
Religion is one of the deepest and oldest human interests
Religion is universal and permanent
It exists in all societies (past&present)
Man has religious needs beyond food ,shelters & money this is why it is said man cannot live
by bread alone
Relegion is ancient and dateless
Definition:-
Religion is a universal phenomenon but it is understood differently by different peoples
Philosophers , sociologists & religious leaders explain it in their own way
Basic consonants of religion:-
Belief in Supernatural Forces – Faith in powers beyond humans; may be one
God (monotheism) or many gods (polytheism).
2. Man’s Adjustment with Supernatural Forces – People worship and
pray to please these forces, believing disrespect brings harm.
3. Acts as Righteous or Sinful – Religion divides actions into sacred
(good) and profane (bad); good acts lead to rewards, sinful acts to
punishment.
4. Methods of Salvation – Every religion provides a path to salvation (like
Moksha, Nirvana) through knowledge, devotion, action, or meditation
RELIGION AS A SYSTEM OF BELIEF AND RITUAL
Religion is based on belief in supernatural forces and on rituals that express this belief.
According to Durkheim, the ideas of sacred (holy) and profane (unholy) are central to
religion.
What makes something holy is not the thing itself but our attitude and emotions toward
it.
Thus, religion has two main aspects — belief and ritual.
Religion as a System of Belief
• Religious belief is the thinking or cognitive side of religion.
• It explains the nature, origin, and meaning of sacred things, life,
death, and the universe.
• Belief is based on faith, not evidence — it is about the “unseen world.”
• Things become sacred only because of people’s faith and attitude
toward them (e.g., cow sacred for Hindus).
Religion as a System of Ritual
• Ritual is the practical side of religion — symbolic actions related to the
sacred.
• It includes prayers, hymns, fasting, dancing, bowing, feasting, etc.
• The holiness of rituals comes from the attitude of faith, not the act
itself.
• Rituals strengthen faith, express emotions, and unite people in a
community.
• Durkheim said rituals help maintain social solidarity and show the
moral power of society over individuals.
In short:
Religion combines belief (faith in the sacred) and ritual (practices
expressing that faith) — both are essential to understand religion as a social
system.
3. THE SACRED AND THE PROFANE
The concepts of 'sacred and profane' are central to Durkheim's theory of religion. According
to him, all aspects of human experience can be divided into two radically and diametrically
opposed categories: the sacred and the profane.
Nature of the Sacred (According to Durkheim)
• The sacred is ideal and beyond ordinary life — extraordinary, awe-inspiring, and
sometimes fear-inducing.
• It includes things set apart for special religious respect — beliefs, rites, duties, or
objects.
• The sacred has supernatural and powerful qualities and can be approached only
• The sacred has supernatural and powerful qualities and can be approached only
through rituals like prayer or cleansing.
• Anything can be sacred — a god, symbol, tree, rock, or animal — if a community
marks it as sacred.
• Once marked as sacred, it becomes a symbol of religious faith and unity.
What is the Profane?
• The profane means ordinary, common, or unholy things belonging to the everyday
world, not the supernatural.
• It includes ideas, people, and objects viewed with a normal, practical attitude of
commonness and utility.
• The profane must not mix with the sacred, as it may pollute or disrespect it.
• What is sacred or profane is socially defined by a community’s beliefs.
• The boundary between sacred and profane is not fixed — it changes across
religions and societies.
In short:
The profane is everything ordinary and worldly, kept separate from the sacred in religion
Nature and Qualities of the Sacred (According to Durkheim)
1. Sacred as a Power:
The sacred is recognized as a special power or force beyond the ordinary.
2. Ambiguous Nature:
It can be both good and bad, physical and moral, attractive and dangerous.
3. Non-Utilitarian & Non-Empirical:
It has no practical or scientific use; it belongs to faith, not reason.
4. Supports Worshippers:
It strengthens believers and demands moral behavior from them.
5. Sacredness is Socially Given:
Objects become sacred because society gives them sacred meaning, not because of their
nature.
Forms of the Sacred
• God – Worshipped by monotheists (Christians, Jews, Muslims) and polytheists
(Hindus).
• Ghosts/Ancestors – Revered in faiths like Shintoism.
• Moral Principles – Seen in Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism (focus on ideals, not
gods).
• Totems – Animals or plants symbolizing group identity and unity.
• Supernatural Forces – Example: Mana in Oceania, a power without shape.
Durkheim’s View
• The sacred represents society itself.
• Religion reflects collective life and moral power of society.
• Function of religion: To create, strengthen, and maintain social solidarity.
Theories and the Origin of Religion
1. Fetishism (Animatism Theory) –
Belief that inanimate objects (like stones, leaves, or charms) possess mysterious or
supernatural powers called mana. People worship these objects for good luck or protection.
2. Animism –
E.B. Tylor’s theory: belief that all living beings and even objects have a spirit or soul that
continues after death. Originated from primitive man’s attempt to explain dreams, life, and
death.
3. Totemism –
Belief in a mystical relationship between a tribe and a natural object (animal or plant) called a
totem, considered sacred and symbolic of the group’s unity.
4. Fear Theory –
Religion arose from fear and awe of natural forces like thunder, storms, or death. People
believed pleasing gods would protect them from danger.
5. Functional Theory (Sociological Theory) –
Developed by Durkheim and others. Religion exists to maintain social solidarity, unity, and
moral order through shared beliefs and rituals.
6. Aleatory (Chance) Theory –
Proposed by Sumner and Keller. Religion originated from man’s attempt to control luck and
avoid misfortunes by believing in supernatural powers.
Structural Aspects of Religion
1. Theologies & Creeds –
Systematic beliefs explaining man’s relation to God and the universe (e.g., Trinity in
Hinduism, Creation in Bible). These form sacred scriptures.
2. Ceremonies & Rituals –
Standardized sacred actions like prayers, fasting, feasting, festivals, and sacrifices
expressing reverence and unity among followers.
3. Symbols –
Objects or signs representing religious identity and unity (e.g., Cross – Christianity, Crescent
– Islam, Swastik – Hinduism).
4. Religious Codes –
Rules of conduct guiding moral and spiritual life (e.g., Ten Commandments, Shariat, Ashta
Marga, Triratnas, Manu Smriti).
5. Sects –
Groups that branch out from main religions due to differences in beliefs (e.g., Sunnis–Shias,
Catholics–Protestants, Shaivites–Vaishnavites).
6. Festivals –
Collective celebrations that reinforce faith, harmony, and social bonding through rituals,
prayers, and feasts.
7. Sacred Literature –
Written scriptures containing core teachings (e.g., Vedas, Bible, Quran, Tripitakas, Agamas).
8. Myth –
Traditional stories explaining natural or divine phenomena; connect humans with their beliefs
and world.
9. Mysticism –
Personal spiritual experience seeking direct union with God; found in all major religions and
enriches inner religious life.
THE RELIGIOUS ROLES
Religion creates different social roles to carry out its beliefs and practices. These are mainly
of two types:
1. Religious Thinkers & Mystics
• Mystic – Seeks union with God through visions and spiritual experiences; often
brings new ideas.
• Prophet – Acts as God’s messenger; gives warnings, commands, and guidance to
people.
• Messiah – A divine leader with supernatural powers who saves people in times of
crisis (e.g., Jesus, Mohammed, Moses).
2. Religious Executives
• Priest/Pastor – Performs rituals, leads prayers, and guides followers.
• Religious Teacher/Philosopher – Spreads knowledge and explains religious
principles (e.g., Buddha, Mahavira, Shankaracharya).
• Missionary – Spreads religion to non-believers.
• Religious Executive – Organizes, teaches, and manages religious activities.
Note: Mystics and thinkers are often innovators, while executives are usually conservative,
creating a balance and tension within religion.