A level Module 6 Definitions
6.1 Capacitors
Capacitance Charge stored per unit potential difference.
The farad One farad is one coulomb per volt.
Time constant of a circuit Is the time taken for the value of voltage/current/charge to drop to 1/e of its original value.
(It is given by resistance x capacitance)
Constant ratio relationship The ratio of successive values on the y axis is constant when taken at regular intervals along
for exponential decay the x axis
6.2 Electric Fields
Electric field strength Force per unit positive charge
Coulomb’s law
with symbols defined
Permittivity A constant, ε, related to the size of the capacitance of a capacitor. For a parallel plate
capacitor of plate separation d and area A, C = εA/d
Electric Potential at a point The work done in bringing unit positive charge from infinity to that point; electric potential at
infinity is zero
6.3 Electromagnetism
Fleming’s left-hand rule First finger – Magnetic field, Second finger – Current, Thumb – Motion (force)
Magnetic flux density B = F/IL with symbols explained or appropriate statement in words
explicit reference to I and B at right angles
One tesla, T The magnetic flux density when a wire of length one metre and carrying a current of one
ampere at right angle to the field experiences a force of 1N
Velocity Selector A device that allows charged particles of only a single speed to pass through it by having a
magnetic field at right angles to an electric field. For the perfect speed: BQv = EQ
Magnetic flux flux = B x A (normal to B) with symbols explained B - flux density and A - area to it
Weber The unit of magnetic flux. One Weber is the magnetic flux when a magnetic field of magnetic
flux density one tesla passes at right angles through an area of one square meter.
Magnetic flux linkage the flux linking/passing through a coil;
and equals N × flux (where N is the number of turns (of the coil))
Faraday’s law of The emf/voltage induced across a coil/component/circuit is
electromagnetic induction; proportional to the rate of change of flux (linkage) through it
Lenz’s law The direction of the induced e.m.f./voltage is such as to oppose the motion/change that
produced it
6.4 Nuclear and Particle Physics
Nucleon number The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
A – nucleon number, Z – proton number, X – element symbol
Isotopes Two nuclides with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
Antimatter The opposite of matter. It has the same rest mass but opposite charge. When combined with
its matter equivalent, the two annihilate.
Annihilation The process by which a particle and antiparticle interact and their combined mass converted
into energy (E=mc2)
Hadron Particles consisting of a combination of quark which gives a net zero or whole number charge
e.g. protons and neutrons
Baryon A hadron that consists of three quarks, or three antiquarks
Meson A hadron that consists of a quark-antiquark pair
Lepton Fundamental particles e.g. electrons and leptons
State what β- and β+ are. β- particle is a high energy electron from the nucleus and a β+ particle is a positron
β- decay A neutron decays into a proton, an electron and an electron antineutrino under the influence
of the weak nuclear force
β+ decay A proton decays into a neutron, a positron and an electron neutrino under the influence of
the weak nuclear force
Spontaneous Happens without a trigger
Random You cannot predict when a specific nucleus will decay or which nucleus will decay next
Activity Number of decays/atoms/nuclei decaying per second/unit time in the source
Decay constant The probability of a given nucleus decaying in the next second or in unit time. Relates the
activity to the number of undecayed nuclei by the equation A = λ N
Half-life The (average) time taken for the activity to fall to half its original value
Mass defect The difference in mass between the mass of a nucleus and the total mass of its separate
nucleons
Binding energy Energy needed to separate / split / break apart neutrons and protons into its constitute
parts.
Nuclear fission The splitting of a nucleus into two (or more) smaller nuclei/particles/
fragments (spontaneously/after absorption of a neutron)
Chain Reaction The sequence of nuclear reactions produced when an induced nuclear fission reaction
triggers more than one further fission reaction
Control Rods Rods that can be lowered into a nuclear reaction to slow down a chain reaction by absorbing
neutrons. Usually made of boron
Moderator A substance used in a nuclear reactor to slow down neutrons and so increase their chance of
being absorbed by the fissile nuclear fuel
Nuclear fusion The joining of smaller nuclei into a larger nucleus
Quantities conserved in a Mass/Energy , Momentum, Charge, Spin, baryon number, lepton number
nuclear decay
Ionise One (or more) electrons removed (or added) to an atom
6.5 Medical Imaging
Intensity Power per unit cross sectional area
Simple Scattering When an X ray photon is deflected by an electron, but the electron remains bound to the
atom and the X ray photon doesn’t lose energy
Photoelectric effect The releasing of an electron due to the incident photon transferring its energy to the
electron
Compton effect The scattering of an electron from an atom that causes the X ray photon to be deflected and
hence lose energy (the X ray wavelength increases)
Pair production The spontaneous creation of an electron – positron pair from a high energy photon that
passes close to the nucleus (energy of the photon has to be greater than the combined rest
mass of the electron and positron
Attenuation Coefficient A measure of how well X ray intensity is reduced by a material according to the equation
(with symbols defined)
Half value thickness The thickness of a material needed to reduce the intensity of the X rays by half
Contrast medium Substance with a high attenuation coefficient (e.g. barium or iodine) that is given to a patient
to improve the contrast between soft tissue on an X ray photograph
Medical Tracer A radioactive source deliberately placed inside the body to allow the imaging of a structure
(e.g. technetium-99m and fluorine-18)
Collimator Sheet of thick lead with vertical holes on a gamma camera used to ensure that only vertical
gamma photons can pass through
Scintillator A crystal (e.g. sodium iodide) that releases thousands of visible light photons when struck by
a high energy photon
Photomultiplier Tube Converts light photons into a measurable electrical signal
Ultrasound A longitudinal (sound) wave with a frequency greater than 20kHz
Piezoelectric Effect The distortion of a crystal due to a potential difference being applied across it (and vice
versa)
A scan vs B scan A scan is one directional and only produces timings
B scan is multidirectional and produces an image (B scan is made up of multiple A scans)
Acoustic impedance Density (of medium) x Speed of ultrasound (in medium)
Acoustic Impedance The application of a gel to the skin that matches the acoustic impedance of the skin so that
matching very little ultrasound is reflected at the surface of the skin
Doppler effect The apparent change in the frequency of a wave due to the relative motion between the
source of the wave and the observer