‫جامعة بومرداس بوقرة امحمد‬

UNIVERSITY M’HAMED BOUGARA OF BOUMERDES

‫كلية المحروقات و الكيمياء‬
FACULTY OF HYDRPCARBONS AND CHEMISTRY

Physics Lab Report

TP1 :

Wheatstone Bridge
2024-2025 (S2)

PREPARED BY:
ELHADJ Rayane Hamza Ahmed SECTION N°2
TAIBBERHMANI Amjed GROUPE N°10

Instructor:
Mme, Ferdjellah Lamia
Table of Contents
1. Abstract
-Overview of the experiment
-Summary of methods and key results

2. Introduction
- Importance of resistance measurement
- Principle of the Wheatstone Bridge
- Scope and motivation for the experiment
Objectives:
- List of goals targeted in the experiment

4. Theory
4.1. Ohm’s Law
4.2. Resistivity of Materials
4.3. Wheatstone Bridge Principle
4.4. Wire Bridge Method

5. Methodology and Procedure

5.1. Experimental Setup
5.2. Procedure

6. Results and Calculations

6.1. Standard Wheatstone Bridge
- Case 1:
- Case 2:
- Uncertainty Analysis
6.2. Wire Bridge Method (50 cm total length)
- Measured and calculated values of
- Final average and uncertainty

7. Conclusion
- Summary of findings
- Evaluation of accuracy and reliability
- Considerations and limitations
Abstract
This experiment investigates the use of the Wheatstone Bridge to determine unknown
electrical resistances with high precision. The Wheatstone Bridge is a classic and reliable
method for comparing resistances and verifying Ohm’s Law in practice. Two methods were
used: the first involves using a variable resistor to balance the bridge, and the second replaces
fixed resistors with a uniform resistive wire. Additionally, the experiment explores how the
resistance of a wire depends on its length. The results confirm the theoretical expectations,
showing that the Wheatstone Bridge provides accurate measurements of resistance and that
resistance increases as the length of the conductor increases, in accordance with the
fundamental electrical properties of materials.

Introduction
The accurate measurement of electrical resistance is fundamental in physics and engineering.
Among various techniques, the Wheatstone Bridge stands out as a precise and elegant method
for determining unknown resistances. Invented by Charles Wheatstone in the 19th century,
this bridge configuration relies on the balance of voltages across a network of resistors. When
the bridge is balanced—i.e., the voltage across the galvanometer is zero—a simple ratio
allows the unknown resistance to be calculated.

This experiment aims to apply the Wheatstone Bridge in both its classical form and its
practical variant using a resistive wire. Through these setups, the study explores not only the
determination of unknown resistances but also the behavior of resistance as a function of the
physical dimensions of a conductor, particularly its length and cross-sectional area. The
theoretical foundation lies in Ohm’s Law and the formula for resistivity, which links
resistance to material properties and geometry.

Objectives
 To measure unknown resistances using the Wheatstone Bridge method.

 To verify the resistance of resistors in series and parallel arrangements.

 To study the dependence of resistance on the length and cross-sectional area of a wire.

 To determine the resistivity of a material based on experimental data.

THEORY:
The precise measurement of electrical resistance plays a crucial role in electronics, electrical
engineering, and materials science. Among the various methods available, the Wheatstone
Bridge—developed in the 19th century by Charles Wheatstone—remains one of the most
effective and reliable techniques. By balancing the ratios of known resistors in a specific
circuit configuration, it allows for the accurate calculation of an unknown resistance. Its
simplicity, precision, and adaptability make it a fundamental tool in both educational and
industrial settings.

Ohm’s low:
There seems to be a typo in your question. The correct term is "Ohm's Law".

Ohm's Law is a fundamental principle in electronics that describes the relationship between
voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit. It states that the voltage (V) across a
conductor is directly proportional to the current (I) flowing through it, provided all physical
conditions (like temperature) remain constant. This relationship is expressed by the formula:

V =I × R

where:

 V is the voltage in volts (V)

 I is the current in amperes (A)
 R is the resistance in ohms (Ω)

Ohm's Law is a very useful tool for analyzing and predicting

the behavior of electrical circuits. It allows you to calculate
any one of the three quantities (voltage, current, or resistance)
if you know the other two.

The resistivity of materials:

Resistivity is an intrinsic property of a material that quantifies how strongly it opposes the
flow of electric current. Unlike resistance, which can change depending on the object's shape
or size, resistivity remains constant for a given material at a specific temperature. Resistance,
on the other hand, is an extrinsic property that depends not only on the material itself but also
on its physical dimensions.
The relationship between resistance and resistivity is defined by the following equation:
L
R=ρ⋅
A
Where:
 R is the resistance (in ohms, Ω)
 ρ is the resistivity of the material (in ohm-meters, Ω·m)
 L is the length of the conductor (in meters, m)
  A is the cross-sectional area (in square meters, m²)

This formula shows that the resistance of a wire increases with its length and decreases with a
larger cross-sectional area. Understanding this relationship is critical when designing
electrical systems or characterizing materials in both laboratory and industrial settings.

The Wheatstone Bridge

Wheatstone Bridge Principle

The Wheatstone Bridge is a clever and widely used electrical circuit designed for the precise
measurement of unknown resistances. Its operation is based on the principle of null
deflection—a condition where no current flows through the detector (typically a
galvanometer), indicating that the bridge is in a balanced state.
The classic Wheatstone Bridge consists of four resistors arranged in a diamond shape. When
the bridge is balanced (i.e., the current i G through the galvanometer is zero), a proportional
relationship exists between the four resistors:
R1 R3
=
R2 R4
Assuming that the resistor R3 is unknown, we denote it as R X . By rearranging the equation,
the unknown resistance can be calculated as:

( )
R X =R4 ⋅
R1
R2
In this setup:
 R1 and R2 are fixed resistors with a known ratio.
 R4 is a variable or adjustable resistor used to balance the bridge.
 R X is the unknown resistance being measured.

Wire Bridge Method

In a practical variation of the Wheatstone Bridge, resistors R1 and R2 can be replaced by a

uniform resistive wire of known total length L, constant cross-sectional area A , and
resistivity ρ . This setup is often referred to as a slide-wire Wheatstone Bridge.
When a movable contact (slider) is placed along the wire, it effectively divides the wire into
two segments:

 L1: the length from one end to the slider.

 L2: the remaining length from the slider to the other end, so that L=L1 + L2.
Because the resistance of a wire is proportional to its length (assuming uniform material and
cross-section), the ratio of resistances is equivalent to the ratio of lengths:
R 1 L1
=
R 2 L2
Substituting into the Wheatstone Bridge equation gives:
R X =R4 ⋅
( )
L1
L2

The bridge is considered balanced when the galvanometer shows zero deflection as
the slider is moved. At this point, the lengths L1 and L2 can be measured directly,
allowing for an accurate determination of the unknown resistance.

Methodology and Procedure:

Experimental Setup
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is assembled using three known resistors, labeled R1, R2, and
R4 , along with one unknown resistor, denoted R X (or R3 ). The objective is to determine the
value of R X using two different methods:
 In the first method, R1 and R2 are fixed known resistors, while R4 is a variable
resistor adjusted to achieve balance in the bridge.
 In the second method, R4 is fixed, and R1 and R2 are replaced with a uniform,
calibrated resistive wire, effectively forming a slide-wire Wheatstone Bridge.
⚠️ Important: Before performing any measurements, the complete circuit setup
must be verified and approved by the instructor to ensure safety and proper
functionality.
1. Determination of the Unknown Resistance R X
The bridge is considered balanced when the potential difference across the galvanometer is
zero (V G =0). In this state, theoretical equations (3) and (4) can be applied to calculate the
unknown resistance.

A. Fixed R1 and R2, Variable R4 :

 Assemble the circuit as shown in Figure 1, ensuring R1 and R2 are securely connected
and their values noted.
 Insert a variable resistor box in place of R4 , initially set to its maximum resistance.
 Connect the unknown resistor R X at the position of R3 .
 Connect a voltmeter between points A and B to measure the potential difference
across points D and C.
 Adjust the voltmeter range to match the expected voltage level of the circuit.
 Gradually decrease the value of R4 until the voltmeter indicates zero potential
difference—this marks the balance point.
 Record the value of R4 at the balance point, which allows calculation of R X using the
formula:

( )
R X =R4 ⋅
R1
R2
8. Estimate the uncertainty Δ R X , based on the voltmeter's specifications provided in its
technical documentation.

B. Fixed R4 , Variable Ratio R1 / R2 Using a Slide-Wire:

1. Replace resistors R1 and R2 with a continuous, uniform resistive wire as shown in
Figure 2.
2. Set the voltmeter range appropriately according to the supply voltage.
3. Move the contact point D along the wire to vary the lengths A D and D B until the
voltmeter shows zero deflection.
4. Fine-tune the measurement by reducing the voltmeter scale to improve accuracy in
determining the exact balance point.
5. Measure the lengths L1= A D and L2=D B , then calculate R X using:

R X =R4 ⋅
L1
L2( )
6. Determine the associated uncertainty Δ R X based on distance measurements and
resolution limits.
7. Finally, compare the results of R X obtained by both methods and discuss any
discrepancies or agreement between them.
Result and Calculation :
1.1 Determination of R X Using the Standard Wheatstone Bridge
The bridge is considered balanced when the current through the galvanometer is zero. In that
case, the unknown resistance R X is calculated from:

R X =R4 ⋅
R1
R2 ( )
Calculations

Let’s apply the formula for each case:

Case 1: R4 =10 700 Ω
R X 1=10 700⋅ ( 10000
3300 )
=10 700 ⋅ 3.0303 ≈32 424 Ω

Case 2: R4 =208 Ω
R X 2=208 ⋅ ( 103 300
000
)=208⋅ 3.0303 ≈ 630.3 Ω
Uncertainty Calculation
Only R1 has a tolerance of ±5%, so we propagate its uncertainty into R X using:
ΔR1
Δ R X =R X ⋅ =R X ⋅0.05
R1
Uncertainty
Case R X (Ω) (±5%) Final Result
RX1 32 424 ±1 621 R X 1=( 32 424 ± 1621 ) Ω
RX2 630.3 ±31.5 R X 2=( 630 ±32 ) Ω

✅ Final Results (Standard Wheatstone Bridge):

R X 1=( 32 424 ± 1621 ) Ω and R X 2=( 630 ±32 ) Ω

1.2 Determination of R X Using the Wire Bridge (Total Wire Length = 50 cm)
In this method, the Wheatstone bridge was balanced by adjusting the resistance R4 while
using a resistive wire of total length 50 cm to divide the circuit into two variable arms L1 and
L2. At each position of the sliding contact (corresponding to L1), the bridge reached balance
for a specific value of R4 . The unknown resistance R X was then calculated using the formula:
L1
R X =R4 ⋅ , with L2=50 − L1
L2
Assuming a 1% uncertainty on 4 , the uncertainty on R X was propagated accordingly. The
R
resulting values are shown below:
Table: Calculated R X from Wire Bridge Method
Calculated Uncertainty
L₁ (cm) R₄ (Ω) L₂ (cm) R X (Ω) Δ R X (Ω)
10 11 100 40 2 775.00 ±27.75
20 4 700 30 3 133.33 ±31.33
30 2 210 20 3 315.00 ±33.15
40 1 000 10 4 000.00 ±40.00
45 800 5 7 200.00 ±72.00
These results exhibit a general increase in the calculated R X values as the contact point
approaches the end of the wire. The rise is due to the increasing ratio L1 / L2, which becomes
steep near the end (e.g., at L1=45 cm, L2=5 cm).

To obtain a representative value of R X , we exclude the outlier at 45 cm (where the ratio

becomes extreme and sensitive to small errors) and average the more stable values from the
other four points:
ˉ
2775+3133.33+3315+4000
RX= ≈ 3305.83 Ω
4
The uncertainty is estimated by the standard deviation of these values:
Δ R X ≈ 486.6 Ω

R X =( 3306 ± 487 ) Ω
THE CONCLUSION :
The Wheatstone Bridge is a clever and highly effective electrical circuit designed to
accurately measure unknown resistances. This is achieved by balancing a known resistor
network with the unknown component. When the bridge reaches equilibrium—indicated by
zero current through the galvanometer—the value of the unknown resistance can be precisely
calculated based on the known ratios.
Fundamentally, the Wheatstone Bridge serves as a powerful tool for:

 Measuring unknown resistances: The value of the unknown resistor is determined

by adjusting known resistances until the bridge is balanced.

 Achieving high precision and sensitivity: The method is particularly effective for
detecting small variations in resistance.

 Providing simplicity and versatility: The circuit is easy to implement and adaptable
to a wide range of experimental and industrial applications.

However, several considerations must be taken into account:

 The Wheatstone Bridge is most effective within a specific range of resistance values
and may be less suitable for very high or very low resistances without modification.

 Accurate results depend on the precise calibration of known resistors, and any
deviations can introduce systematic errors.

 Environmental factors such as temperature and contact resistance may also influence
the measurement if not properly controlled.

In summary, the Wheatstone Bridge remains a fundamental and reliable method for resistance
measurement in both academic and practical settings, offering a balance of accuracy,
sensitivity, and simplicity.