High Compression
By David Vizard
--Whether a low buck racer or an almost over financed team, compression has many race
winning attributes you should know about.
When power on a budget or absolute maximum power is needed a suitably high or ultra high
(above 13.5/1) compression is, as often as not, the primary key to success. Certainly the subject
of compression is not to be taken lightly. Nor is the fact that C.F. Taylor, in his landmark work
'The Internal Combustion Engine', shows graphed test results indicating that gains tail off to
virtually nothing at 17/1. These results are often quoted as an argument against pushing the
compression to such limits. Such an argument is based on the grounds that increased unreliability
from cylinder pressure and a very real possibility of detonation offsets the supposedly small
gains to be had.
Unfortunately this is only half the story. Having presented this graph Taylor goes on to say that
this was done on a production motor (which would have had a short cam) and that many
variables, including adverse chemical reactions during combustion, played a part in the results
seen. He also states, in so many words, that a great deal more work needs to be done in this area.
It's the last part of Taylor's observations that are so often left out of any argument as to the pros
and cons of ultra high compression. Over the last 20 years the effects and interactions related to
high compression ratios have been intensely explored in an effort to maximize the output from
normally aspirated drag race motors. Applying the wealth of this work can easily make the
difference between winning and being an also ran.
Before arbitrarily deciding on the compression you want for your motor consider that what you
might like for compression is actually irrelevant - it's what the motor wants that counts. Just how
much can usefully be used depends on a variety of variables which will be detailed shortly. What
is not commonly appreciated is how much power and torque can be sacrificed by not giving
sufficient thought and attention to maximizing a motors CR.
In almost all circumstances the higher the compression ratio the greater the output of the motor.
Striving to maximize this can pay big dividends as demonstrated by the pushrod 500-inch (8.2
liter) carburated 2 valve per cylinder ProStock Formula drag race motors. With CR's of around
17/1 these motors are developing close to 1300 hp (150 hp plus per liter) and upward of 820 lbs.-
ft of torque (100 lbs.-ft per liter). A reasonable estimate indicates that something well in excess
of 100 hp of this impressive output can be attributed to the effective utilization of the ultra high
ratio's involved. As we shall see shortly that does not mean just arbitrarily upping the CR.
At this point we will make a start with those factors which, in conjunction with a change in CR,
have a large effect on power. From here we will work our way down a list.
Intake Valve Closure to Compression Compatibility.
There is a certain minimum functional CR for any
given cam duration. If the CR drops below this
minimum it proves better to choose a cam of less
duration, as it will make more HP. This is one of
those parts compatibility factors so often
mentioned by the popular press but rarely if ever,
actually defined.
The point at which the intake valve closes after
BDC is dictated mostly by opening duration and
to a lesser extent by the cams Lobe Centerline
Angle (LCA) and it's advance. In simple terms the
more opening duration the cam has the further the
piston is up the bore on the compression stroke.
This means at low rpm less air is trapped above
the piston prior to valve closure. This in turn
reduces the effective CR. Fig 1 shows the piston
position for three typical small block Chevy cams
each of successively longer duration. Starting at a
10/1 ratio the graph Fig 2 shows the extent of the
drop in effective compression ratio and cranking
pressure as the cam duration is increased. Just
how much effect this can have on output is clearly shown by the tests done with a 2 liter Pinto
motor (Fig 3). This unit has almost identical response characteristics to a small block Chevy so a
direct percentage comparison can be made between the two.
The blue curves are for a production cammed
9/1 2-liter motor equipped with a ported big
valve head, side draft 45 Webers and a 4 into 2
into 1 exhaust system with muffler. Installing a
285-degree duration (at seat) cam with no other
changes reduced the low speed torque (red
curve) with parity not being reached until close
to 4000 rpm. Above this the 285-degree cam
(some 30 degrees longer than the production
cam) paid off. At peak power about 13
additional hp was realized. On the negative side
the motor would not take full throttle below
about 1800 rpm as doing so would cause it to
cut out completely.
For the tests shown by the green curves the
compression was raised to 11.5/1. This brought
the cranking pressure up to about 7% higher
than was seen with the production cam and 9/1
CR. The biggest gains seen were at the low end.
With 11.5/1 the motor could be pulled down to
1500 rpm where it made only 1.5 lbs.-ft less
torque than the stock cam/compression
combination. By pairing the cam duration with
an appropriate CR peak power increased by 26
hp with virtually no low speed penalty.
LCA to Compression Compatibility.
Although it is the most influential factor the intake
valve closing point is not dependant on the opening
duration alone. Although less significant the Lobe
Centerline Angle (LCA) and the cam advance also
influence the intake valve closure point. (see Fig 4
for details). Except for rare occasions when advance
or retard is substantial (more than about 4 degrees)
the interaction between LCA and compression is by
far the most important. The bottom line here is that
cams with wider LCA's (numbers getting larger)
respond to an increase in compression to a greater
extent than those with tight LCA's (numbers getting
smaller). The other side of the coin here is that the
higher the compression ratio used the wider the
optimal LCA becomes. For instance a 500 inch 17/1
CR motor with intake valves around 2 ½ inches
produces best results with a LCA of about 113 -114
degrees. Drop the compression to 13/1 and the
optimum LCA will tighten up to 110-111 degrees.
This piece of info can be very useful as building
ultra high compression motors almost inevitably
brings about a piston to valve clearance problem at TDC on the overlap cycle. Knowing that the
LCA can be spread and the overlap reduced as a consequence means that the potential for valve
to piston interference is measurably reduced.
Cam Advance & Compression Compatibility.
Due to a great deal of dimensional and proportional commonality, most 2 valve motors with
parallel valve configurations produce best power curves with about 2-4 degrees of advance. The
more advanced the cam is the earlier the intake closes. This leaves the motor a little less sensitive
to the compression/valve closure timing combination. If a motor makes more HP with the cam
retarded then there are two issues to deal with. The first and maybe the least important is the fact
that the motors output will be more sensitive to compression and valve closure timing. The
second is that there may be a problem with the motors basic spec as retarded cam timing is rarely
optimal other than in motors with extremely good low lift intake flow such as seen with 5 valve
per cylinder units.
CR and Cylinder Pressure Decay.
When the
compression
ratio is raised
peak cylinder
pressures follow
suit. A basic rule
of thumb is that
peak pressures
will be
approximately
100 -110 p.s.i.
for every ratio. A
10/1 ratio motor
will typically see
1000-1100 p.s.i.
peak pressure. A
16/1 motor will
be between 1600
and 1760. An
ultra high CR
then means big
pressure
numbers. This
puts a lot of stress on gaskets, rods, cranks and blocks. Fortunately modern metallurgy and
engineering is up to the task of dealing with the situation. Probably the most demanding area has
been in the field of head gaskets but progressive companies such as FelPro have stayed on top of
the situation.
Apart from the increase in peak pressures there
are other factors which are useful to know about.
The first is that the higher the CR the earlier
peak pressures occur in the power stroke. A 10/1
motor may reach it's peak pressure about 14 -15
degrees after TDC where as a 13/1 motor would,
all else being equal, experience peak pressure at
12-13 degrees and a 16/1 motor could be as
early as 10 degrees (Fig 5 shows a typical
situation) With such high peak pressures
occurring so close to TDC the angle of the rod
and crank become more important. At such high
compression ratios there is more to be gained
from offsetting piston pin bores or preferably
offsetting the bore itself to increase leverage on
the crank.
The validity of offsetting the piston pin becomes
even greater when the rate at which cylinder
pressures decay is taken into account (Fig 7).
Essentially the rate of pressure decay is faster in
the high compression cylinder. This means more
of the work is applied to the crank earlier in the
stroke and less later. Since rod and crank angles
are not as favorable early in the stroke what we
do with them becomes more important. To more
easily understand this aspect it is best to consider the expansion ratio (ER) rather than the
compression ratio. Numerically these two are the same. The difference is that the CR is when the
piston travels up the bore to TDC and the ER is when it travels down from TDC. The fact that
the pressure decays faster when higher CR's are used is due almost entirely to the geometry
changes brought about by the change in the CR. Fig 7 shows how the pressure decays due to the
volume increasing faster the higher the compression.
What Happens Around TDC When the CR is Raised.
Appreciating the effect that the interaction of cam and compression have on a motors power
curve are relatively easy to see. These interactions all take place as a result of the valve closure
point and the compression. There are however a number of other lesser factors which are no less
of important in the search for maximum output. These factors relate to how raising the
compression affects various aspects and events in and around TDC during both the overlap
period and the power stroke.
During the overlap period a higher CR reduces the exhaust dilution of the incoming charge. A lot
of this is due simply to the fact that the smaller chamber contains less exhaust. But additional
effects, which improve scavenging, also play a part. Assuming the exhaust to be effective a
higher compression ratio causes a small, but significant increase in exhaust velocity while the
piston is in the vicinity of TDC. The smaller chamber and increased exhaust velocity play an
important role toward bringing the motor up on the cam sooner and making those big low-end
gains seen. Just after TDC the
cylinder pressure can be
measurably lower. This
encourages an earlier and slightly
greater inflow into the cylinder.
The higher exhaust velocity helps
ensure that it is fresh intake
charge that is entering the
cylinder rather than undesirable
exhaust returning from the
exhaust port. This last factor also
contributes toward a reduce intake
charge temperature which again
benefits output.
When race regulations call for an
intake restriction, such as a two-
barrel carb on a V8, chamber
scavenging becomes significantly
more critical. When an intake
restriction exists, there is a greater
tendency for the motor to pull
exhaust gases rather than intake
back into the cylinder. For this
reason maximizing the combined
effect of reduced chamber volume
and increased exhaust velocity
and a slightly cooler intake charge are important factors toward increased output.
Although influenced by the effects of exhaust length tuning we see that as the CR is increased
there is a tendency for the VE to marginally drop below peak torque and increase after peak
torque.
Gains on Carburated V8 Motors.
If your motor is a carburated V8 with an open plenum, race style intake manifold and a single 4-
barrel carb, raising the CR has important implications other than the cam/CR issue discussed
earlier. At low speed, big cfm carbs tend to deliver poorly atomized fuel and metering accuracy,
along with fuel distribution, also suffers. A long duration cam aggravates this situation. Not only
is the cam less able to deliver low speed results in its own right but it reduces the carbs ability to
do it's job. At low speed a bigger cam reduces the breathing efficiency of the motor because no
pressure wave tuning or inertial ramming of the cylinder takes place. This means the airflow
demand made on the carb is reduced. To the carb this seems as if the motor it is servicing is
smaller than it really is. In effect this produces the same effect as having a carb too big for the
job. When the CR is raised the start of the induction stroke and the pulse it communicates to the
carb via the intake manifold is much more pronounced. This increases the booster signal, which
in turn improves atomization and metering. In addition to this the higher compression produces a
higher charge temperature toward the end of the compression stroke thus causing more of the
fuel to vaporize. These last points represent some especially good reasons why carburated
alcohol burning motors should have ultra high CR's.
The aspects of increased compression just discussed considerably improve the low speed
combustion process. A point to make here is we are not talking peanuts. Getting the cam and
compression right along with adequate carb booster signal can be worth, on a typical 350 inch
V8, 60-80 lbs.-ft of torque in the 1500 to 3000 rpm range as well as a good chunk of power the
rest of the way up. To put the low speed improvement into perspective that's like adding 50
inches to the motor's displacement.
Other Points of Relevance.
When the CR is raised the increase in power is largely due to the fact the thermal efficiency is
improved. By considering the expansion ratio as shown in Fig 7 it is easy to appreciate that more
energy is extracted from the charge. (i.e. the biggest difference between starting and finishing
pressures). Other than increased output, and equally significant, is improved fuel economy,
especially under part throttle driving conditions that increased compression brings about. This
last aspect is an important issue for the street performance enthusiast. Raising the CR and using a
more expensive, higher octane fuel can often prove no more costly per mile because the
increased economy can partially and sometimes completely offset the greater fuel expense. This
is especially the case if the substantial increase in low speed torque allows a torque converter
with a lower stall speed to be used. In such instances this means being able to enjoy the
additional power without necessarily incurring greater fuel costs. In one instance I ran a 13/1
motor on premium and octane booster. Allowing for the improved mileage brought about by a)
the higher compression and b) the tighter converter I estimated that running on additized
premium fuel was costing me no more per mile than less compression and a looser converter to
compensate for the lesser low speed torque. So, for no increase in running costs, the higher
compression and tighter converter meant I was able to enjoy the benefits of a 515 hp 350 instead
of one of about 470 hp.
More on the minor side is the fact that increasing the CR cuts heat loss to the coolant. In addition
to this the exhaust temperatures drop by about 20-25 F per ratio increase. Also the exhaust valve
temperatures drop so, all else being equal, exhaust valves have less, not more, tendency to burn
out.
Maximizing Compression for a given Fuel Octane.
Increasing the CR to the limit always brings the issue of detonation into the picture. Fuels having
octane values as high as 115 are usually good for more than can physically be built but many
classes of competition regulate the fuel that can be used to 100 octane Research (RON) or less.
The challenge then becomes one of finding ways and means to make the most of the octane
available. The key here is maximizing the use of every octane number available. Since the octane
number required increases at the rate of about one whole number for every 21 degrees F increase
in air temperature our first line of action is to keep the induction system as cool as possible.
Drawing air from a cool source outside the engine compartment is typically worth the equivalent
of two whole numbers. Intake manifolds with any kind of heat are out and isolating the intake
from exhaust and block heat is worth the effort. Thermal barrier coating of the intake tract has
proven to be worthwhile on every motor we have tested on. The last component the incoming
charge meets is the intake valve. This is subject to greater heat input than the exhaust valve
because of it's significantly greater area. Coating the chamber face of the valve is simple to do
and worth the effort.
Still on the subject of valves the temperature the exhaust valve runs at can often be the prime
factor limiting the compression that can be used prior to the onset of detonation. To that end
there are definite advantages to using sodium cooled exhaust valves.
Last on the thermal do's and don'ts list and about the most obvious is to use a cooler running
thermostat. For most applications coolant temperatures should not exceed 170 F (77 C). Above
this temperature the typical high performance motor will start to loose power and it's octane
requirement will go up. An interesting point that ProStock engine builder Jim Yates made during
his '98 lecture at the Superflow conference was that his 17/1 ProStock motors ran temperatures
of only about 130 -140 F.
Swirl.
In addition to keeping the intake tract cool the port form itself is also an influence. If a strong
swirl action can be generated without loss of flow (not always easy) the combustion process will
be more consistent from cycle to cycle and the burn rate faster. With a faster burn rate the end
gases are exposed to the advancing flame front for less time so are less susceptible to detonation.
Additionally fast burn chambers, although having a higher average pressure, tend to have
marginally lower peak pressures, as less ignition advance is required.
Moving on to the combustion chamber itself we need to consider minimizing crevices and sharp
corners within the combustion chamber and maximizing the quench/squish potential. With most
wedge chamber motors as well as 4 valve motors with limited squish/quench area optimizing the
piston to head clearance at TDC can prove very rewarding. Within the limits of what is typically
seen on production motors we find that there is about 1% gain in output for every 6 thousandths
of an inch (0.15 mm) reduction in piston to head face clearance made.
Swirl, Ignition and Timing.
High swirl and rapid mixture motion from a tight quench/squish clearance almost inevitably
leads to a more effective and consistent combustion process. However it does not always lead to
a more easily ignitable charge. Regardless of the effect of rapid mixture motion high
compression ratios call for high performance ignition systems. When choosing an ignition
system for a high compression motor it is far better to go into a gross overkill mode rather than
spending time finding or simply accepting what is just adequate for the job in hand. This means
utilizing an aggressive ignition system. By going this route the point of optimum advance can be
reduced by 2 or 3 degrees. This in turn leads to lower peak pressures thus leaving room to
possibly increase compression even further or have a wider detonation buffer zone.
Aggressive ignition and minimizing the optimal advance is not the only issues here. Because the
cylinders of a multi cylinder motor will almost certainly run at different temperature there is a
real need to be able to time each cylinder independently. In addition to this there can be
differences in the volumetric efficiency and fuel distribution with motors having one carb
feeding a number of cylinders such as is the case for a single 4-barrel carb on a V8. All this leads
to the need for independent timing of each cylinder so that the worst cylinder does not
compromise the best. Some test data we were privy to showed, on a Winston Cup motor of
nominally 730 hp, that individual cylinder timing was worth about 12 hp.
Optimizing Chamber Form.
The last points
that we will
discuss here
concerning
combustion
chambers relates
to the chambers
compactness. The
fact that ultra high
CR's are being
sought means the
object of the
exercise is
maximum power.
This also infers
the need to turn
maximum rpm. If
so short stroke/big
bore motors look
like the way to go because they can also accommodate bigger valves and turn more rpm.
Unfortunately going this route tends to generate thin section, large diameter combustion
chambers having a high surface area to volume ratio. This brings about a higher heat loss and the
thinner sections of such a chamber (in and around 120 thousandths of an inch) tend to be prime
candidates for detonation. Additionally the flame travel path on such a motor is longer. None of
these situations are desirable and represent something of a critical balancing act when building a
ProStock motor.
If very high compression is required of a big bore/short stroke unit the piston crown form
inevitably becomes critical. Many years ago a motor project I helped Tucson head porter Carl
Schatilly work on serves to demonstrate the difficulty high dome pistons can present. Basically
the test motor was a wet sump, low cost Winston cup motor replica. With high dome pistons
delivering 13.5/1 compression the motor marginally failed to make 400 hp. The heads were
removed and the flame pattern inspected. It was obvious (as expected) that all was not well here.
The simple expediency of a file was used on each piston crown to remove metal so as to get
areas that were burning to communicate with those were it was not. By the time the crowns were
modified to the extent of reducing compression to about 12/1 the power was up to almost 550 hp.
The point demonstrated here is that effective combustion cannot be traded for compression.
The Mechanics of Effective Combustion Vs Compression.
All the forgoing demonstrates that attempts to harness the benefits of high and ultra high
compression can easily lead to the combustion process being compromised. The thinner the
combustion chamber cross section becomes the harder it is to burn the charge effectively.
Because of better proportioning this means that long stroke motors are better candidates for high
compression than short stroke units. Unfortunately a long stroke has a smaller bore diameter
which limits valve diameter to something less than it's big bore/short stroke counterpart. The
smaller valves mean less breathing potential. This leaves us with a cylinder that, though more
suited to high compression, needs that same high compression to compensate for a loss in
breathing capability.
The need for high compression and high rpm is the principle driving force behind the trend over
the past 15 years toward shallower valve angles for high performance 2 valve heads. The original
23 degrees used for the small block Chevy was fine for 1955 when CR's were not expected to
exceed about 10/1 or so. Putting a 14/1 ratio into a 350 cubic inch motor almost inevitably leads
to an ugly piston crown. By adopting 18 degrees to bring the valves to a more vertical position a
more compact combustion chamber form could be achieved.
If, for a given cylinder head the stroke can be lengthened such as is so commonly done when
building a 383 out of a 350 SB Chevy then, for any given ratio, an improved chamber form will
be achieved. This is brought about by virtue of a flatter piston crown for any given CR.
Conclusions.
If all the details suggested here are taken into account compression ratios as much as 1.5 higher
can be accommodated from fuels in the 90-100 octane range. For a MotorTec built aluminum
headed 350 small block Chevy with computer managed ignition curves, this has led to the use of
CR's as high as 11./1 on 93 octane (R+M/2) fuel. However our efforts and results may yet still be
conservative as to what can be achieved. Although shrouded in typical race engine builder
secrecy rumors have been heard of motors with as much as 12.5/1 running successfully on 93
(R+M/2) octane fuel. The technology is here and it just seems a case of chasing it.