NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

RQF LEVEL: 6

NUMBER OF CREDITS: 5

SECTOR: ALL

SUB-SECTOR: ALL

LEARNING HOURS: 50

- CLASSROOM-BASED LEARNING SESSIONS: 15

- TUTORIALS: 5

PRACTICALS: a) Polytechnic: 30 (b) workplace:

- Issue date: January 2023

- Copyright: © ULK Polytechnic Institute (UPI), 2023

PURPOSE STATEMENT: The module entitled Research Methodology describes the

Knowledge, skills and attitudes in the comprehensive research methodology. The
emphasis will be put on description of research concept, development and
presentation of research proposal. This module provides the ability to conduct a
research proposal.

1
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

LEARNING UNIT 1: Describe research concept

Learning 1.1. Explain research concept

Outcomes:
1.1.2. Explain approaches and types of research

1.1.3. Describe criteria and qualities of good research

LEARNING UNIT 2: Develop a research proposal

Learning 2.1. Describe a research proposal

Outcomes:
2.2. Review existing literature

2.3. Formulate research title, background of the study and problem

statement

2.4. Set research objectives, questions, scope and expected results

2.5. Describe research methods

2.6. Plan a research schedule and budget

LEARNING UNIT 3: Presentation research proposal

Learning Outcomes: 3.1. Write the main text and references of the research proposal
3.2. Formulate preliminary pages, executive summary and appendices
of a research proposal
3.3. Perform oral presentation of the research proposal

2
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

UNIT 1: Research Concept

1.1. Explaining research concept: A research concept is a broad, abstract idea or idea that
serves as the foundation for a research project. It's a general topic that guides the specific
questions and methods you'll use to explore it. A research concept can be also defined as a
mental construct representing a general idea or category. It's like a blueprint for a research
project, providing a starting point for formulating research questions and developing a research
plan.

Research is an activity that leads us to finding new facts, information, assisting us in verifying
the available knowledge and in making us question things that are difficult to understand as per
existing data. To be successful manager it is important for you to know how to go about making
the right decisions by being knowledgeable about the various steps involved in finding
solutions to problematic issues. It may be understood in following terms also:
• Research is a continuous activity in majority of disciplines and professions.
• It is helpful in critical assessment of the way we work, execute policies, and give
instructions in our professions.
• It is systematic observation of processes to find better ways to do things and to reduce the
effort being put in to achieve an objective and identifying the validity of the targets.
• In fact, research is a subconscious activity that we are involved in at all times whether it is
purchase of daily use articles, a car, an electronic good or planning a holiday

1.1.1 Definition of research

Research is a process to discover new knowledge to find answers to a question. The word
research has two parts re (again) and search (find) which denote that we are taking up an
activity to look into an aspect once again or we want to look for some new information about
something. Research is understood as original investigation undertaken in order to gain
knowledge and understanding for the public benefit.

❖ Research may have certain other qualities such as:

✓ It is a prearranged / structured enquiry (a formal step by step method or sequence to take
up research activity is developed to ensure correctness of data and validity of processes).
Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of
data. The degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of scientific
methods establish the results obtained.
3
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

✓ It utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems (the method used should be
able to give repetitive results under similar conditions).
✓ It should create new knowledge that is generally applicable. (The outcomes should be such
that they are not specific to particular issue or a situation but need to be generalized for
application to comparable issues).
✓ It is creative process to develop better understanding of mankind, social and cultural and
economic issues.
✓ It should be useful to others who wish to apply the findings in developing new policies or
applications of findings of research in the benefit of public.
❖ How to ensure a good quality Research?
1. Purpose should be clearly defined.
2. Common concepts should be used that can be understood by all
3. Research procedures should be explained in detail.
4. Research design should be carefully planned.
5. Researcher should declare all the possible errors and their possible impact on findings.
6. Analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal significance.
7. The methods of analysis should be appropriate.
8. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
9. The researcher should good command over research methodologies and should be
intelligent and experienced.
10. Ethics in research refers to a code of conduct of behavior while conducting research. Ethical
conduct applies to the organization and the members that sponsor the research, the
researchers who undertake the research, and the respondents who provide them with the
necessary data.

4
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

Figure 1.1: Research process

1.2. Approaches and types of research
1.2.1 Application of research
Research applications, particularly applied research, aim to solve practical problems, improve
existing practices, or create new products or services. This is achieved through systematic
investigation and analysis, leading to actionable insights and solutions. The application of
research can be seen in various fields, including business, medicine, education, and government
policy.
➢ Specific examples of research applications include:
o Problem Solving: Applied research identifies and addresses real-world issues, leading to
improvements in processes, products, and services. For example, a clothing store might use
research to understand customer preferences and adjust inventory accordingly, while a
doctor might use research to create targeted educational materials for patients.
o Policy Formulation: Research findings inform policy decisions, leading to more effective
and data-driven regulations and initiatives.
o Innovation and Development: Research fuels the development of new technologies,
products, and processes, driving innovation and economic growth.
o Improved Decision-Making: Research provides valuable insights that help managers
make informed decisions about resource allocation, market strategy, and operational
efficiency.

5
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

o Education and Training: Research informs educational practices and curriculum

development, leading to more effective teaching and learning methods.
o Healthcare and Public Health: Research plays a crucial role in developing new
treatments, preventing diseases, and improving public health outcomes.
o Social Progress: Research helps address pressing social issues, such as poverty, inequality,
and environmental problems, by providing evidence-based solutions.
❖ Research application in Engineering:
Research plays a crucial role in engineering by driving innovation, improving problem-solving,
and facilitating the development of new technologies and products. It helps engineers
understand complex problems, develop effective solutions, and evaluate the practicality of their
designs. Additionally, research in engineering contributes to academic advancement and helps
students develop valuable problem-solving skills.
Elaboration:
o Driving Innovation: Engineering research is the engine of technological advancement,
leading to new products, processes, and infrastructure. Research helps engineers explore
new concepts, experiment with different approaches, and develop innovative solutions to
complex problems.
o Improving Problem-Solving: Research equips engineers with the knowledge and tools to
analyze problems, identify key factors, and develop effective solutions. By understanding
the underlying principles and theories, engineers can approach problems more strategically
and develop more effective solutions.
o Developing New Technologies and Products: Research is essential for the development
of new technologies and products, from cutting-edge medical devices to sustainable energy
solutions. By conducting research and experimentation, engineers can explore new
possibilities and create innovative solutions that meet societal needs.
o Facilitating Academic Advancement: Engineering research contributes to the
advancement of academic knowledge and understanding. It allows researchers to publish
their findings in scholarly journals, present their work at conferences, and collaborate with
other researchers to advance the field.
o Developing Essential Skills: Research experience helps engineering students develop
critical thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills that are highly valued in the

6
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

industry. It provides them with hands-on experience in research methodologies, data

analysis, and the development of innovative solutions.
Examples of Research Applications:
✓ Medical Engineering: Research in materials science and biomechanics has led to the
development of new prosthetics, implants, and medical devices.
✓ Civil Engineering: Research in structural mechanics and geotechnical engineering has
enabled the construction of safer and more sustainable buildings and infrastructure.
✓ Computer Engineering: Research in artificial intelligence and machine learning is driving
the development of new software and hardware technologies.
✓ Electrical Engineering: Research in renewable energy and energy storage has led to the
development of new power generation systems and battery technologies.

1.2.2 Types of research

Research can be classified from six perspectives as diagrammatically presented below.

Figure 1.2: Types of research

1. Descriptive research: attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,

phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about living condition of a
community, or describes attitudes towards an issue. Here the researcher observes/studies and
then describes what did he find. Take, for example, the research on the drug. The Ministry of
Health assigned this study to team of doctors to study the extent of drug abuse among college
students, nature of drug taken, causes of taking drugs, sources of getting drugs, effects of taking
drugs, and so on. Here the researcher observes/studies and then describes what did he find.
7
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

Since collecting d ata on scientific basis for descriptive studies is careful and deliberate,
scientific descriptions are typically more accurate and precise than casual ones.
2. Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate
the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study/pilot study).
Suppose a researcher is interested in exploring students' unrest in a university campus. He will
study dissatisfaction of students regarding various problems they point out, administrators'
apathy to these problems, students organizing under a leader for demonstration, strike, etc. type
of students who, become active, the support they seek and get from outside agencies, how
widespread the unrest becomes, how it is suppressed by the police, how leaders are arrested,
and how authorities are pressurized to concede some demands.
3. Explanatory research or causal research: attempts to clarify why and how there is a
relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon. For example, a
researcher will study why rural poverty is not eliminated, why some parts of eastern province
of Rwanda face frequent droughts. Although it is useful to distinguish between the three types
or the three purposes of research, it must be stated that some studies may have all the three
elements.
4. Pure research or basic research: This research is concerned with quest for knowledge and
knowing more about the phenomenon without concern for its practical use and also with
developing and testing hypotheses and theories. The knowledge produced through pure
research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods. For example
developing a theory pertaining to the climate change.

5. Applied research or action-research: is done to solve specific, practical questions; for

policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory,
but is usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research. Applied
research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. In this case, an academic
institution such as a university, will have a specific applied research programme funded by an
industrial partner interested in that programme.
6. Experimental research: This type of research is conducted by controlling one or more
variables and comparing control and experimental groups. This example explains the design of
experimental research by considering two groups on students 'attitude towards strike:
G1= group of 70 students are not exposed to teacher’s lecture on strike (control group: 50 =
favorable versus 20 unfavorable towards strike);
8
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

G2= group of 70 students are exposed to teacher's lecture on strike (experimental group= 25
are favorable versus 45 unfavorable towards strike).

1.3. Criteria and qualities of good research

1.3.1 Criteria of good research
[Link] Formulation of research topic
Formulating a research topic involves identifying a broad area of interest and refining it into a
focused, manageable, and researchable question. This process typically starts with
brainstorming, exploring existing literature, and then narrowing down the topic to a specific
problem or question that can be addressed through research.
Here's a more detailed breakdown of the process:
1. Brainstorm and Explore:
• Identify broad interests: Start with a general area of interest or a problem you're curious
about.
• Read widely: Explore existing literature (books, articles, reports) to gain a deeper
understanding of the topic and identify potential research questions.
• Consider your own experience and expertise: Think about your previous experiences,
knowledge, and skills in the field.

2. Narrow and Focus:

• Identify research gaps: Look for areas where existing research is incomplete,
contradictory, or lacks specific information.
• Formulate a research question: Turn the broad topic into a specific, focused question
that can be answered through research.
• Refine the question: Make sure the research question is clear, concise, and measurable.

3. Reflect and Evaluate:

• Assess feasibility: Consider the resources available, the time required, and the scope of
the research question.
• Consider ethical implications: Ensure that the research question is ethical and does not
violate any ethical guidelines.
• Seek feedback: Share your research question with peers, mentors, or advisors and gather
feedback.
9
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

4. Develop a Research Statement:

• Clearly articulate the purpose of the research: Explain why the research is important
and what contribution it will make to the field.
• State the research objectives: Outline the specific goals you want to achieve through the
research.
• Identify the key concepts and variables: Define the important terms and concepts that
will be used in the research.

By following these steps, you can develop a well-defined research topic that will guide your
research process and lead to a meaningful contribution to the field

[Link] Defining research problem

A research problem is a specific, well-defined issue, gap in knowledge, or practical concern
that a researcher aims to address through their study. It serves as the foundation of any research
project, guiding the research process and shaping the study's objectives, methods, and
outcomes. Essentially, it's a clear and concise statement that identifies what needs to be
investigated or understood.
Here's a more detailed explanation:
Key Aspects of a Research Problem:
• Specificity: A research problem should be focused and narrow, not overly broad.
• Clarity: The problem should be easy to understand and unambiguous.
• Significance: The problem should be important and relevant to the field of study.
• Feasibility: The problem should be solvable within the available resources and time
constraints.
• Researchable: The problem should be amenable to investigation using appropriate
research methods.
Steps to Define a Research Problem:
1. Identify the Area of Interest: Start by exploring a specific field or topic that you are
interested in.
2. Review Literature: Examine existing research, theories, and debates to identify gaps or
contradictions in knowledge.
3. Formulate the Problem: Once you have identified a gap or issue, state it clearly and
concisely as a research problem.
10
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

4. Justify the Problem: Explain why the research problem is important and relevant to the
field.
5. Refine the Problem: Continuously refine the problem statement as you learn more about
the topic and develop your research questions.

[Link] Formulation of research problem

This step comes specifying the problems/topic to be studied on the basis of one's interest and
idea of research. The idea might come from a theory, sponsored research by institution or
organization (say, problem of road condition by Ministry of Infrastructure of Rwanda, problem
of drug abuse by Ministry of Health of Rwanda), or one's interest in specific field (Public
works, Public Health, Business administration). The idea may be to determine the aspects of
the phenomenon to test the validity of relationship between two or more variables.

In some domains of research, for example in business, instead of defining the problem, it is to
be discovered. For example, the factory owner knows that the production and profits are
declining but he may not be able to explain to researcher as to what is to be inquired. As such,
the researcher may often state the problem only in general terms. Gradually, during research,
he may identify what is to be specifically investigated. For instance, the bread manufacturer
only knows that his bread is not selling much. On his request, the researcher may think of
studying consumer behavior, i.e. whether the low sale is because of bad quality of the bread,
the size of packet, high cost, lack of advertising, lack of information to consumer on the calorie
content, and so on.

Following considerations can help in selecting a research problem. These help to ensure that
the study will remain manageable and that the researcher will remain motivated.
1. Interest: a research endeavor is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and
possibly unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great interest to sustain the
required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that one can manage within the time
and resources at the disposal. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific
and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and
measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.
11
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of expertise for the task you
are proposing since you need to do the work yourself.
5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current
gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems
can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating stage.

[Link] Research gap identification

Research gap identification involves finding areas within a field of study that have not been
fully explored, lack sufficient data, or present inconsistencies or limitations in existing
research. It's a crucial step in designing research projects to ensure they address new and
important questions.
Types of Research Gaps:
• Classic Literature Gap: A complete absence of research on a specific topic.
• Disagreement Gap: Conflicting findings or interpretations in existing research.
• Contextual Gap: Research findings may not be universally applicable across different
contexts.
• Methodological Gap: Current research methods may not be the most appropriate for a
specific topic.
• Evidence Gap: Missing evidence or insufficient evidence to support a claim.
• Knowledge Gap: A lack of understanding or knowledge about a specific topic.

How to Identify Research Gaps:

1. Define your research question or issue: Clearly identify the area you're interested in.
2. Review existing literature: Search for publications related to your topic and examine the
cited sources.
3. Identify key terms: Use relevant keywords to search for publications and examine the
existing knowledge.
4. Look for gaps: Pay attention to areas where research is missing, contradictory, or limited.
5. Ask questions: Consider the broader implications of your findings and whether there are
gaps in understanding or practical applications

12
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

[Link] Formulation of research objective

Formulating research objectives involves defining the specific goals and outcomes of a study.
This process begins by identifying a research problem, conducting a literature review, and then
creating clear, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) objectives. These
objectives serve as a roadmap for the research, ensuring that it remains focused and contributes
meaningfully to the field.
Here's a more detailed breakdown of the process:
1. Identify the Research Problem:
Start by clearly defining the issue or question you aim to address. This will guide the
development of your objectives.
2. Conduct a Literature Review:
Review existing research to understand the current state of knowledge, identify gaps, and refine
your research question.
3. Define the Scope:
Determine the scope of your study, including the population, setting, and time frame, to ensure
realistic and achievable objectives.

4. Formulate Objectives:
• General Objective: State the overall purpose of your research in broad terms.
• Specific Objectives: Break down the general objective into smaller, actionable, and
measurable steps.
• Use SMART Criteria: Ensure that each objective is Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
Relevant, and Time-bound.
• Align with Research Questions: Make sure that each objective addresses a specific aspect
of your research question.
5. Evaluate and Refine:
Review your objectives for clarity, feasibility, and alignment with the research problem and
questions.
6. Seek Feedback:
Discuss your objectives with peers, advisors, or experts to get valuable feedback and ensure
they are robust and well-defined.
13
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

By following these steps, you can create research objectives that are well-defined, achievable,
and directly contribute to the overall goals of your research project

[Link] Formulation of research scope

Formulating the scope and sequence of a research project involves defining the boundaries of
the study and the order in which research activities will be performed. It's a crucial step in
ensuring the project remains focused and efficient.
Here's a step-by-step guide to formulating the scope and sequence of a research project:
1. Define the Research Problem:
• Identify the specific research problem: Clearly articulate the issue or question you want
to investigate.
• Narrow the focus: If the research area is broad, refine it to a manageable and specific
problem.
• Example: Instead of "air pollution," focus on "the impact of particulate matter on
cardiovascular health in urban areas".
2. Formulate Research Questions and Objectives:
• Develop clear research questions: These questions should guide your investigation and
align with the research problem.
• Set specific objectives: Define what you aim to achieve through your research.
3. Define the Scope of the Study:
• Specify the target population: Who or what will be the focus of your research?
• Set geographical boundaries: Where will the research take place?
• Establish a timeframe: How long will the research last?
• Define limitations: What are the constraints of the study (e.g., resources, access)?
4. Develop a Research Sequence (Timeline):
• Outline the key research activities: List the tasks required to complete the study, such as
literature review, data collection, analysis, and reporting.
• Create a timeline: Determine the order in which these activities will be performed and
assign realistic deadlines.
5. Review and Refine:
• Review the scope and sequence: Ensure that they are comprehensive, realistic, and
aligned with the research problem and objectives.

14
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

• Make necessary adjustments: Refine the scope and sequence as needed based on
feedback or unforeseen circumstances.
Example of a Research Sequence:
1. Literature Review: Gather and analyze existing research on the topic.
2. Develop a Research Design: Choose a suitable research design (e.g., experimental,
observational).
3. Data Collection: Gather data through surveys, interviews, experiments, etc.
4. Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data using appropriate statistical or qualitative
methods.
5. Interpretation of Findings: Interpret the results of the data analysis.
6. Reporting: Write a comprehensive research report.
Key Considerations:
• Feasibility: Ensure that the scope and sequence are achievable given the available
resources and time.
• Relevance: Ensure that the scope and sequence address the research problem and
contribute to the existing body of knowledge.
• Ethical considerations: Adhere to ethical guidelines throughout the research process.
By carefully formulating the scope and sequence of your research project, you can ensure that
your research is focused, efficient, and contributes to a better understanding of the research
problem

[Link] Construction of research hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a testable prediction about the relationship between two or more
variables, formulated before conducting research. It's an educated guess based on existing
knowledge, aiming to explain a phenomenon or answer a research question.
Steps to Construct a Research Hypothesis:
1. Identify a Research Problem: Start with a specific question or problem you want to
investigate.
2. Review Literature: Conduct a thorough review of existing research to understand the
current knowledge and gaps in the field.
3. Formulate a Hypothesis: Based on your research question and review, create a clear and
testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

15
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

4. Define Variables: Clearly identify and define the independent (manipulated) and
dependent (measured) variables in your hypothesis.
5. Refine and Test: Make sure your hypothesis is specific, testable, and falsifiable.
Key Considerations:
• Testability: A hypothesis must be testable through research, meaning you can design an
experiment or study to collect data that can either support or refute it.
• Falsifiability: A hypothesis should be able to be proven wrong, indicating that the research
can lead to a conclusion about the relationship between variables.
• Clarity and Conciseness: The hypothesis should be stated clearly and concisely, avoiding
ambiguity.
Example: If a student hypothesis is: "Students who get adequate sleep will perform better on
standardized tests than students who do not get adequate sleep," then the:
• Independent variable: is sleep quantity.
• Dependent variable: is test performance.
• Hypothesis: states a predicted relationship between sleep and test performance.

A hypothesis is also an educated guess, based on the probability of an outcome. Scientists

formulate hypotheses after they understand all the current research on their subject. Hypotheses
specify the relationship between at least two variables, and are testable. For a hypothesis to
function properly, other researchers must be able to reproduce the results that prove or disprove
it.
Two types of hypotheses exist: a descriptive hypothesis asks a question, and a directional
hypothesis makes a statement. The researcher does not know about a phenomenon, but has an
intuition to form the basis of certain assumption or guesses. These are tested by collecting
information that will enable you to conclude if your assumption was correct.
A hypothesis is used in an experiment to define the relationship between two variables. The
purpose of a hypothesis is to find the answer to a question. A formalized hypothesis will force
us to think about what results we should look for in an experiment. The first variable is called
the independent variable. This is the part of the experiment that can be changed and tested. The
independent variable happens first and can be considered the cause of any changes in the
outcome. The outcome is called the dependent variable. The verification process can have one
of the three outcomes. Your assumption may prove to be:

16
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

o Right;
o Partially right; or
o Wrong.
The validity of such assumptions or guesses cannot be conclusively verified if the process
adopted is incorrect. Therefore, a hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or
an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not
know. A researcher calls these assumptions/ hunches hypotheses and they become the basis of
an enquiry. In most studies the hypotheses will be based upon your own or someone else‘s
observation. A researcher may carry out a valid investigation into a problem without
construction of a hypothesis though it brings clarity, specificity and focus to a research
problem. The six most common forms of hypotheses are:
1. Simple Hypothesis.
2. Complex Hypothesis.
3. Empirical Hypothesis.
4. Null Hypothesis (Denoted by "HO")
5. Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by "H1")
6. Logical Hypothesis.
7. Statistical Hypothesis.
Characteristics & Qualities of a Good Hypothesis
• Power of Prediction. One of the valuable attribute of a good hypothesis is to predict for
future.
• Closest to observable things. A hypothesis must have close contact with observable things.
• Simplicity.
• Clarity.
• Testability.
• Relevant to Problem.
A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for further
research in the hope that a tenable theory will be produced, even if the hypothesis ultimately
fails.
The general functions of hypotheses:
▪ Development of Research Techniques
▪ Separating Relevant From Irrelevant Observation
17
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

▪ Selecting Required Facts

▪ Direction of Research
▪ Acts as a Guide
▪ Prevents Blind Research
▪ Accuracy & Precision
▪ Link between Theory & Investigation
▪ Link between Assumption & Observation
▪ Provide answer for a Question
▪ Save Time, Money & Energy

1.3.2 Qualities of good research

[Link] Characteristic of good research
Characteristics of research determine whether research is free of biases, prejudices, and
subjective errors or not. The terms are very commonly used in research and the success of any
research depends on these terms. They can be summarized as:
1. Generalized.
2. Controlled.
3. Rigorous.
4. Empirical.
5. Systematic
6. Reliability.
7. Validity.
8. Employs hypothesis
9. Analytical & Accuracy.
10. Credibility.
11. Critical

1. Generalized: The researcher usually divides the identified population into smaller samples
depending on the resource availability at the time of research being conducted. This sample
is understood to be the appropriate representative of the identified population therefore the
findings should also be applicable to and representative of the entire population. The
analytical information obtained from studying these samples should be given a fair idea of

18
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

total population of being follower of particular ideology, beliefs, social stigmas, driving
force, etc. E.g. A study to understand the occupancy statistics and patterns of small hotels
and resorts in a given city would involve the researcher studying selected properties after
the city is divided into zones (East, West, North, South and Central). He may also divide
the properties on the basis of number of rooms for categorization and selection for study
purposes thus ensuring that the findings are representative of entire city.
2. Controlled: The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two
variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors
affecting the relationship. Some variables are classified as controlling factors and the other
variables may be classified as possible effects of controlling factors. Laboratory
experiments as in pure sciences like chemistry can be controlled but any study that involves
societal issues cannot be controlled. E.g. Destination studies are not controllable as they
have variables like geography, climate, accessibility, seasonality, etc but studying the
effects of standard operating procedures in a hotel applied in a particular service can be
controlled.
3. Rigorous: One must be careful in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
4. Empirical: The processes adopted should be tested for the accuracy and each step should
be coherent in progression. This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon firm
data gathered from information collected from real life experiences or observations.
Empirical nature of research means that the research has been conducted following rigorous
scientific methods and procedures. Quantitative research is easier to prove scientifically
than qualitative research. In qualitative research biases and prejudice are easy to occur.
5. Systematic: The procedure or process being developed to undertake a study should be
carefully drafted to ensure that resources utilization is optimized. Chaotic or disorganized
procedures would never yield expected outcomes. The steps should follow a logical
sequence to get to the desired outcome.
6. Reliability: This is a degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation, or
specification can be depended on to be accurate. It is difficult to be measured accurately,
but now there are instruments which can estimate the reliability of research. It is the extent
to which an experiment, test, measuring procedure, research, research instrument, tool or

19
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

procedure yields the same results on repeated trials. If any research yields similar results
each time it is undertaken with similar population and with similar procedures, it is called
to be reliable research.
7. Validity & Verifiability: It is the extent to which a concept, conclusion or measurement
is well-founded and likely corresponds accurately to the real world. The word "valid" is
derived from the Latin Validus, meaning strong. This should not be confused with notions
of certainty nor necessity. The validity of a measurement tool (for example, a test in
education) is considered to be the degree to which the tool measures what it claims to
measure. Validity is based on the strength of a collection of different types of evidence. In
terms of research validity is the strength with which we can make research conclusions,
assumptions or propositions true or false. Validation refers to accuracy of measurement
whether or not it measures what it is supposed to measure. It also ascertains the application
of research in finding the solution to an issue in different conditions. This gives a clear
direction to the research activity. The findings of a study should be verifiable by the
researcher as well as anyone else who wants to conduct the study on similar guidelines/
under similar conditions.
8. Employs Hypothesis: Any research definitely begins with formulation of a hypothesis. It
is a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting
point for further investigation. A hypothesis can be defined as an educated guess about the
relationship between two or more variables. In simple words a hypothesis is an idea around
which one starts working before it is actually converted to research. A question is what
forms the base and is later termed as hypothesis and it may or may not draw a logical
outcome. Hypothesis may prove to be wrong or null or void after the study is conducted. A
hypothesis is an informed and educated prediction or explanation about something. Part of
the research process involves testing the hypothesis, and then examining the results of these
tests as they relate to both the hypothesis and the world around you. When a researcher
forms a hypothesis, this acts like a map through the research study. It tells the researcher
which factors are important to study and how they might be related to each other or caused
by a manipulation that the researcher introduces (e.g. a program, treatment or change in the
environment). With this map, the researcher can interpret the information he/she collects
and can make sound conclusions about the results.

20
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

9. Analytical & Accurate: Research should be focused not only about what is happening but
also on how and why a particular phenomenon, process draws certain conclusions. Any
data collected if does not yield results or is unsuitable to be used for further studies or
applications disrupts the purpose of research. Therefore, data collected should be
reasonable and free of errors to be easily analyzed. Accuracy is also the degree to which
each research process, instrument, and tool is related to each other. Accuracy also measures
whether research tools have been selected in best possible manner and research procedures
suits the research problem or not. Selection of appropriate data collection tools is essential
for research.
10. Credibility: The extent to which an analysis of finding can be treated to be trustworthy is
termed as credibility. This can only be assured by the use of the best source of information
and best procedures in research. Researches based on secondary data are not reliable as
such data may have been manipulated or distorted by earlier researchers to suit their work.
The availability of secondary data from public domains is easy but cokes with lots of risks
involved. The research study conducted based on primary data is always reliable and carries
more credibility. A certain percentage of secondary data can be used if the primary source
is not available but basing a research completely on secondary data when primary data can
be gathered is least credible. When researcher gives accurate references in the research the
credibility of the research increases but fake references also decrease the credibility of the
research.
11. Critical: Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

[Link] Research design concept

A research design is a plan that guides a research project, outlining the approach, methods, and
procedures for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting data to answer a specific research
question. It's the framework within which a research study is conducted. Research Design is
also important as it guides the researcher to identify the correct methods of data collection and
analysis, conditions in which the activity of research shall be carried out and approximation of
the funds to be utilized for it; maintaining its connectivity to the purpose of research. A good
research design is characterized by its flexibility, effectiveness and suitability etc.

21
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

A properly developed research design is the one that results in minimal or no error at all if
everything goes as planned for. It is important to have clarity of the research question for the
objectives to be achieved. Therefore researcher may have to create mix of various design
approaches to create a suitable one for the problem being addressed.
Need of Research Design:
• It facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby
• making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
• Minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
• It reduces inaccuracy;
• It helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;
• It eliminates bias and marginal errors;
• Research design stands for advance planning of the method to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective
of the research and the availability of staff, time and money.
• It minimizes wastage of time;
• It is helpful for collecting research materials;
• It is helpful for testing of hypothesis;
• It gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower,
time, and efforts;
• It Provides an overview to other experts;
• It Guides the research in the right direction.

Key elements of a research design:

• Research Problem: A clear and concise statement of the issue or question the research
aims to address.
• Research Questions: Specific, focused questions that guide the investigation and provide
direction for data collection and analysis.
• Research Approach: The overall strategy or methodology used to address the research
problem, such as quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods.
• Data Collection Methods: Techniques used to gather information, including surveys,
interviews, observations, experiments, or existing data.

22
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

• Data Analysis Methods: Techniques used to analyze and interpret the collected data, such
as statistical analysis, thematic analysis, or narrative analysis.
• Sampling Strategy: How participants or data sources will be selected from the population
to be studied.
• Ethical Considerations: Ensuring the research is conducted ethically, respecting
participant rights and privacy.
• Study Type: The specific type of research design used (e.g., experimental, correlational,
descriptive).
• Variables: Factors that are manipulated, measured, or controlled in the research study.
• Statistical Design: If applicable, the plan for conducting statistical analysis to test
hypotheses or examine relationships between variables

Figure 1.3: Main phases in research design

1.14 Selecting a study design

Selecting a study design involves choosing the most appropriate approach to investigate a
research question, considering factors like the research question, resources, and ethical
considerations. This process often involves classifying the research as quantitative or
23
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

qualitative, and then choosing a specific design like experimental, observational, or mixed
methods.
Key Factors in Choosing a Study Design:
• Research Question: The nature of the question (exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory)
guides the choice of design. For example, a quantitative study might use a randomized
controlled trial to test a new treatment, while a qualitative study might use interviews to
explore lived experiences.
• Resources: Consider time, budget, and access to participants or data when selecting a
design.
• Ethical Considerations: Ensure the design respects participants' rights and well-being.
• Research Expertise: Choose a design that aligns with the researcher's skills and
experience.
• Data Availability: Some designs require specific data sources or access to populations
that may be limited.

Types of Study Designs:

❖ Quantitative Designs: Quantitative Research design: A quantitative research design shares
similar characteristics with a scientific research in the following ways:
• An outline question stating the problem that needs to be solved.
• Has a set order and procedure used to answer these questions?
• Analyses the data generated.
• Draws its conclusion after the data has been collated and analyzed so that the conclusion
drawn from the findings are not predetermined.
• A quantitative research design is used to examine the relationship between variable by
using numbers and statistics to explain and analyze its findings and there are four types of
quantitative research design:
1. Descriptive design research: As the name implies, it is intended to describe the present
status of an issue or a problem which is analyzed based on the available data and so does
not require hypothesis to begin with. E.g. If a guest is complaining about a faulty shower
in the bathroom just because he may not have used a modular shower earlier which has to
be resolved delicately and not by pointing out to him that he is not aware of new technology.

24
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

2. Co relational design research: This seeks to discover if two variables are associated or
related in some way, using statistical analysis, while observing the variable. E.g. If the heat
is reduced or increased during cooking how does the food react to it.
3. Experimental design research: This is a method used to establish a cause and effect
relationship between two variables or among a group of variables. The independent variable
is manipulated to observe the effect on the depended variable. E.g. The change in response
to between groups of foreigners treated to welcome drinks and freshener tissues and the
one that is simply welcomed and allocated rooms in a hurry due to peak hours of check in
and check out.
4. Quasi-experimental design research: As the name suggests such an experiment is designed
replicating the true experimental design, except that it does not use randomized sample
groups. Also, it is used when a typical research design is not practicable.

➢ In summary, quantitative research design is based on the following points:

✓ Experimental: Involves manipulating an independent variable to observe its effect on a
dependent variable.
✓ Observational: Studies relationships between variables without manipulating them.
Examples include cross-sectional studies, cohort studies, and case-control studies.
✓ Cross-sectional: Data is collected at a single point in time, allowing for a snapshot of the
population.
✓ Cohort: A group of individuals is followed over time to observe outcomes.
✓ Case-control: Individuals with a specific condition (cases) are compared to those without
the condition (controls) to identify potential risk factors.
❖ Qualitative Research Design: Qualitative research design, on the other hand, is
exploratory in nature as it tries to discover not guess the conclusion. It seeks to answer the
questions what and how. It is a process to identify or develop a hypothesis that is further
tested using other techniques.
A qualitative research design is used to explore the meaning and understanding of complex
social environments, like the nature of experiences gained by a tourist by reading about the
texts and stories shared by them. It also intends to understand, describe or discover the
findings. The researcher is usually the primary instrument that formulates the question and
interprets the meaning of a data. The data used are mostly documented words from

25
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

interview, newspapers videos etc. More than one type of data is collected during this
research, from the field, where the participants are. In other words, the research goes
beyond the intended scope, so making it emergent because the method of research changes
and different types of data might be collected as the research goes on.
➢ In summary, qualitative research design can be done through the following points:
• Case Study: In-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases.
• Grounded Theory: Used to develop a theory based on data collected from interviews or
observations.
• Mixed Methods Designs: Combine quantitative and qualitative approaches.

Steps in Selecting a Study Design:

1. Define the Research Question: Clearly articulate the research question and the research
aims.
2. Consider the Research Paradigm: Decide whether the research will be quantitative or
qualitative.
3. Choose a Design: Select a study design that aligns with the research question, resources,
and ethical considerations.
4. Identify the Population and Sampling Method: Determine who will be included in the
study and how they will be selected.
5. Choose Data Collection Methods: Select appropriate methods for collecting data (e.g.,
surveys, interviews, observations).
6. Plan Data Collection Procedures: Develop a detailed plan for collecting and organizing
data.
7. Decide on Data Analysis Strategies: Plan how the data will be analyzed and interpreted.
In summary, development of research design could be done using the following steps:
o Classify the intended outcome i.e. what needs to be understood.
o Develop the research question.
o Understand what needs to be measured.
o Select the population as per the study taken up.
o Identify the ideal data collection method.
o Construct interconnected characteristics.
o Use correct analysis tools.
o Decide how the findings of the study shall be published.
26
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

UNIT 2: Develop a research proposal

2.1 Writing a research proposal
A clean, well-thought-out proposal forms the backbone for the research itself and hence
becomes the most important step in the process of conduct of research. The objective of
preparing a research proposal would be to obtain approvals from various committees including
ethics committee and to request for grants. However, there are very few universally accepted
guidelines for preparation of a good quality research proposal. A search was performed with
keywords such as research proposal, funding, qualitative and writing proposals using search
engines, namely, PubMed, Google Scholar and Scopus.

2.2 Basic requirements of a research proposal

A proposal needs to show how your work fits into what is already known about the topic and
what new paradigm will it add to the literature, while specifying the question that the research
will answer, establishing its significance, and the implications of the answer. The proposal
must be capable of convincing the evaluation committee about the credibility, achievability,

27
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

practicality and reproducibility (repeatability) of the research design. Four categories of

audience with different expectations may be present in the evaluation committees, namely
academic colleagues, policy-makers, practitioners and lay audiences who evaluate the research
proposal. Tips for preparation of a good research proposal include; ‘be practical, be persuasive,
make broader links, aim for crystal clarity and plan before you write’. A researcher must be
balanced, with a realistic understanding of what can be achieved. Being persuasive implies that
researcher must be able to convince other researchers, research funding agencies, educational
institutions and supervisors that the research is worth getting approval. The aim of the
researcher should be clearly stated in simple language that describes the research in a way that
non-specialists can comprehend, without use of jargons. The proposal must not only
demonstrate that it is based on an intelligent understanding of the existing literature but also
show that the writer has thought about the time needed to conduct each stage of the research.

2.3 Contents of a research proposal:

The contents or formats of a research proposal vary depending on the requirements of
evaluation committee and are generally provided by the evaluation committee or the institution.
In general, a cover page should contain the (i) title of the proposal, (ii) name and affiliation of
the researcher (principal investigator) and co-investigators, (iii) institutional affiliation (degree
of the investigator and the name of institution where the study will be performed), details of
contact such as phone numbers, E-mail id's and lines for signatures of investigators.
The main contents of the proposal may be presented under the following headings: (i)
introduction, (ii) review of literature, (iii) aims and objectives, (iv) research design and
methods, (v) ethical considerations, (vi) budget, (vii) appendices and (viii) citations

28
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

Figure 1.4: conceptual framework of research proposal

1. Introduction: It is also sometimes termed as ‘need for study’ or ‘abstract’. Introduction is
an initial pitch of an idea; it sets the scene and puts the research in context. The introduction
should be designed to create interest in the reader about the topic and proposal. It should
convey to the reader, what you want to do, what necessitates the study and your passion for
the topic. Some questions that can be used to assess the significance of the study are: (i)
who has an interest in the domain of inquiry? (ii) What do we already know about the topic?
(iii) What has not been answered adequately in previous research and practice? (iv) How

29
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

will this research add to knowledge, practice and policy in this area? Some of the evaluation
committees, expect the last two questions, elaborated under a separate heading of
‘background and significance’. Introduction should also contain the hypothesis behind the
research design. If hypothesis cannot be constructed, the line of inquiry to be used in the
research must be indicated.
2. Review of literature: It refers to all sources of scientific evidence pertaining to the topic
in interest. In the present era of digitalization and easy accessibility, there is an enormous
amount of relevant data available, making it a challenge for the researcher to include all of
it in his/her review. It is crucial to structure this section intelligently so that the reader can
grasp the argument related to your study in relation to that of other researchers, while still
demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. It is preferable to
summarize each article in a paragraph, highlighting the details pertinent to the topic of
interest. The progression of review can move from the more general to the more focused
studies, or a historical progression can be used to develop the story, without making it
exhaustive. Literature should include supporting data, disagreements and controversies.
3. Aims and objectives: The research purpose (or goal or aim) gives a broad indication of
what the researcher wishes to achieve in the research. The hypothesis to be tested can be
the aim of the study. The objectives related to parameters or tools used to achieve the aim
are generally categorized as primary and secondary objectives.
2.4 Research design and method
The objective here is to convince the reader that the overall research design and methods of
analysis will correctly address the research problem and to impress upon the reader that the
methodology/sources chosen are appropriate for the specific topic. It should be unmistakably
tied to the specific aims of your study.
In this section, the methods and sources used to conduct the research must be discussed,
including specific references to sites, databases, key texts or authors that will be indispensable
to the project. There should be specific mention about the methodological approaches to be
undertaken to gather information, about the techniques to be used to analyze it and about the
tests of external validity to which researcher is committed.
The components of this section include the following:
• Population and sample: Population refers to all the elements (individuals, objects or
substances) that meet certain criteria for inclusion in a given universe, and sample refers to
30
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

subset of population which meets the inclusion criteria for enrolment into the study. The
inclusion and exclusion criteria should be clearly defined.
• Data collection: The researcher is expected to give a detailed account of the methodology
adopted for collection of data, which include the time frame required for the research. The
methodology should be tested for its validity and ensure that, in pursuit of achieving the
results, the participant's life is not jeopardized. The author should anticipate and
acknowledge any potential barrier and pitfall in carrying out the research design and explain
plans to address them, thereby avoiding lacunae due to incomplete data collection. If the
researcher is planning to acquire data through interviews or questionnaires, copy of the
questions used for the same should be attached as an annexure with the proposal.
• Rigor (soundness of the research): This addresses the strength of the research with respect
to its neutrality, consistency and applicability. Rigor must be reflected throughout the
proposal.
• Neutrality: It refers to the robustness of a research method against bias. The author should
convey the measures taken to avoid bias, viz. blinding and randomization, in an elaborate
way, thus ensuring that the result obtained from the adopted method is purely as chance
and not influenced by other confounding variables.
• Consistency: Consistency considers whether the findings will be consistent if the inquiry
was replicated with the same participants and in a similar context. This can be achieved by
adopting standard and universally accepted methods and scales.
• Applicability: Applicability refers to the degree to which the findings can be applied to
different contexts and groups.
2.5 Data analysis
This section deals with the reduction and reconstruction of data and its analysis including
sample size calculation. The researcher is expected to explain the steps adopted for coding and
sorting the data obtained. Various tests to be used to analyse the data for its robustness,
significance should be clearly stated. Author should also mention the names of statistician and
suitable software which will be used in due course of data analysis and their contribution to
data analysis and sample calculation.

2.6 Ethical considerations

31
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

Medical research introduces special moral and ethical problems that are not usually
encountered by other researchers during data collection, and hence, the researcher should take
special care in ensuring that ethical standards are met. Ethical considerations refer to the
protection of the participants' rights (right to self-determination, right to privacy, right to
autonomy and confidentiality, right to fair treatment and right to protection from discomfort
and harm), obtaining informed consent and the institutional review process (ethical approval).
The researcher needs to provide adequate information on each of these aspects.
Informed consent needs to be obtained from the participants (details discussed in further
chapters), as well as the research site and the relevant authorities.

2.7 Budget
When the researcher prepares a research budget, he/she should predict and cost all aspects of
the research and then add an additional allowance for unpredictable disasters, delays and rising
costs. All items in the budget should be justified.

2.8 Appendices
Appendices are documents that support the proposal and application. The appendices will be
specific for each proposal but documents that are usually required include informed consent
form, supporting documents, questionnaires, measurement tools and patient information of the
study in layman's language.

2.9 Citations
As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used in composing your
proposal. Although the words ‘references and bibliography’ are different, they are used
interchangeably. It refers to all references cited in the research proposal.

32
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

UNIT 3: Present research proposal

3.1 research proposal structure.
According to Kothari (2004), writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step
of the research process. The proposal report informs the readers what the researcher intended
to be done, what has to be discovered and what conclusions expected to be drawn from his
findings. The report should be written in an academic style. Language should be formal and
not journalistic.

Format of a Proposal Report project

A written report shall have the following contents.

3.2 Preliminaries

i. Cover Page: The cover page should bear the Research topic (in capital letters), full name of
the candidate below it. Purpose of the research project, e.g. A research project submitted in
partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Awards of Degree of Engineering in surveying
of polytechnic Institute of Kigali Independent University ULK. The date of submission
should appear below in the form of month and year (e.g. July 2015
ii. Declaration: This is a pronouncement by the student that this study is original, done by the
student and has not been submitted for any award anywhere else by the student or any other
person. The student shall sign the declaration.
iii. Approval page: The Supervisor has to sign the approval page as a certification that he/she
supervised the student and submission is made with his/her approval.
iv. Dedication: This mentions the name(s) to who the research is dedicated.
v. Acknowledgement: This entails recognition of supervisors, colleagues, sponsors,
individuals and institutions that have helped the researcher to achieve the study.
vi. Table of Contents: The table of content serves as a synopsis or headline display. It contains
an index and reference to all major sections of the report project with an indication of page
numbers on which all they are located.
vii. List of Tables: A list of tables consists of all the tables in the thesis showing their headings,
titles and page numbers.

33
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

viii. List Figures: Captions of figures, diagrams and illustrations used in the research project and
their corresponding pages are listed.
ix. Abbreviations and Acronyms: All abbreviations and acronyms used in the research project
are listed alphabetically and written in full letters.
x. Abstract: An abstract is a brief summary of the report outlining the study, objectives,
theoretical and conceptual frameworks, methodology, and the key findings.

3.3. Oral presentation of the research proposal

Body of the text of the Research Proposal Report: This part should include:

3.3.1 Chapter one: General Introduction of the Study:

This chapter should contain the following sections:
[Link] Background to the study: The background gives the rationale of the study.
[Link] Statement of the Problem: The statement of the problem refers to what has been
detected in the practical or theoretical world and needs a solution. It is derived from
the background and should be supported with published literature or recorded
statements. The student should clearly state the nature of the problem, its known or
estimated extent or magnitude and bring out the limitations or delimitations of the
independent and dependent variables as noted in the background.
[Link] Objectives of the Study: Student should define two types of objectives i.e. General
objective and specific objectives. General Objective rises directly from the title of the
study while specific objectives refer to different sections of research project. Each
specific objective should state what must be achieved. The student should write the
objectives in such a way that they reflect what he/she intended to achieve.
[Link] Research Questions/Hypotheses: A research question is a clear, focused, concise and
arguable inquiring statement derived from the research objectives. The number of
research questions should correspond with the number of specific objectives. The
student should state clearly the research questions used in the study. A hypothesis is a
statement of assumption that has to be tested in a study. It may be stated as null and
alternate hypothesis. Hypotheses may also be stated in non-directional way. A student
should state each hypothesis to correspond with one objective.
[Link] Scope of the Study: This section defines the research coverage in terms of time,
content, and depth of investigation, sample size, theoretical coverage and geographical
34
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

coverage. It therefore, defines the parameters of the research. The student should state
with justification the scope of his/her study.
[Link] Significance of the Study: This refers to the academic relevance of the study. It focuses
on academic contributions and practical use arising out of the research findings. It
should emphasize knowledge creation or innovative application of existing knowledge
to society. The student should be able to point out the potential contribution and
relevancy of his/her study.

3.3.2 Chapter two: Literature Review:

This chapter deals with the analysis of existing literature on the subject with the
intention of bringing out the contributions, the limitations, differences and gaps. This
chapter should contain the following key elements:
o Purpose of the chapter which should be stated in the first paragraph of the chapter;
o Survey of the available literature on the topic which helps to confirm that the student has
not re-invented the wheel or researched on a topic that has already been studied;
o Theoretical review which should be carried out according to themes of the study and should
reflect the objectives, hypotheses, methods, and research questions;
o Conceptual analysis which should reflect the relationships among concepts or variables that
the student analyzed in order to achieve the stated objectives of the study.
o Review of related literature which should show similar works carried out elsewhere with
emphasis on identified gaps in terms of coverage, context, timing and methodology.

3.3.3 Chapter Three - Research Methodology and Instruments:

This chapter should show the methods, approaches and instruments used to obtain data
and information from the field. In this chapter, a student should describe:

[Link] Research Design: A research design is a plan for carrying out field research. It
describes the nature and pattern used during field research. The research design (for
example; survey, historical, experimental, exploratory, descriptive among others) used
in the study should be explained and justified. The qualitative and quantitative methods
of data analysis used should be indicated and justified.
[Link] Study population: As noted earlier, the study population refers to the people, objects
and events from which the study sample is drawn. The student should describe and
justify the choice of the study population for his/her field research, clearly pointing out
35
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

the major characteristics and numbers involved. Choice of the study population should
be justified in relation to the variables studied.
[Link] Sampling: Sampling is a method of determining a subset of a study population (sample
size) to be used when carrying out field research as well as specifying the techniques
used in selecting the units of the subset. This can be achieved through identification of
a sampling frame. The sample size should be determined using either confidence level
or sampling formulae or rule of the-thumb and as much as possible should be adequate.
As seen, there are several sampling techniques such as random sampling, stratified,
purposive, and snowballing among others from which a student should choose the ones
most appropriate to the nature of the study. The student should describe the sampling
frame used in the study. He/she should describe and justify the sample size as well as
the sampling techniques used in the study.
[Link] Data Collection Methods and Instruments: The methods and instruments used to
collect data from the field are many and varied. The methods include: interviewing,
Focus Group Discussion (FGD), observation, reviews of secondary data among others.
The data collection instruments include, questionnaires, interview guides, observation
among others. The choice of the methods and instruments depends on the overall design
of the study. Each of the methods and instruments to be used in the study has to be
explained fully and a copy of the instrument appended. The student should describe and
justify each of the data collection methods and instruments used in the study. The
student should clearly show how each tool was administered.
[Link] Validity and Reliability Tests: Validity is the extent to which a test (items of research
instrument) measures what it claims to measure. The four common types of validity
are content, concurrent and predictive and construct. It is important for the test to be
valid so that the results can be accurately interpreted, believed and applied. A student
should explain and justify at least two tests of validity of his\ her research instruments
used in the study.
[Link] Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure: The variable on the research
instrument is considered reliable if when tested several times, the same results are
obtained. The ways of conducting a reliability test include: test, retest, inter – rater,
parallel-forms and internal consistence. Students should explain the reliability test
conducted and justify the results obtained.

36
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC
 NOTES OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY/ CCMRM601-RESEARCH METHODOLOGY UPI (ULK)

[Link] Data Processing: This is a process of cleaning and organizing data for the purposes of
presentation and analysis. Data processing includes editing, coding, entering, tabulating
and synchronizing the data. The student should describe how he/she processed the data.
The student should also specify the computer programmer he/she used.
[Link] Data Analysis: Data analysis involves organization and interpretation of the data
generated in respect of each objective in the study. There are several approaches to data
analysis; qualitative and quantitative approaches. There are several techniques that can
be used under data analysis. These include descriptive and explanatory techniques for
qualitative data and statistical techniques (correlations, regression, and chi square)
among others for quantitative data. The student should adequately describe and justify
the data analysis approaches used for each objective in the study.
[Link] Limitations: The limitations section of the thesis describes situations and
circumstances that may affect or restrict the methods and analysis of research data.
Limitations are influences that the researcher cannot control. They are the
shortcomings, conditions or influences that place restrictions on the methodology and
conclusions of a study. Any limitation(s) that might influence the results should be
described and explained. In stating the limitation, the student should consider a number
of factors such as analysis of data, the nature of self-reporting, the instruments used,
the sampling strategy and time constraints. A student should state clearly the problems,
challenges and risks encountered during the study and show how these have been
overcome.
3.3.4 Ethical Considerations: The student shall explain how he/she handled ethical
concerns or issues regarding the research such as matters of confidentiality, consent,
safety, integrity, truthfulness, plagiarism/copying, among others.

References: The student must list all works cited in the research project in accordance with
the approved university format for research. The student shall use APA referencing style
except under special circumstances where permission has been obtained. The examples below
are consistent with the format for citing material as indicated in the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association.

37
PREPARED BY Engr. Dr. Aminu AHMED, Lecturer in ULK-POLYTECHNIC