Class XI

Subject: Geography
Chapter – 5: GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES

Understanding the Uneven Surface of the Earth

• The Earth's crust is dynamic – it moves both vertically and horizontally, shaping the
landscape.
• Movement was faster in the past, but still continues today.
• The variation in internal forces from within the Earth contributes to unevenness.
• The surface is also shaped by external forces originating from sunlight and atmospheric
processes.
• Two main forces operate on the Earth’s surface:
o Endogenic forces – originate within the Earth (e.g., earthquakes, volcanism); build
up land.
o Exogenic forces – originate from the atmosphere (e.g., rain, wind, temperature
changes); wear down land.
• The interaction between these opposing forces leads to the continuous transformation
of the Earth’s surface.
• Human activities have intensified pressure on the surface, often leading to degradation
and environmental damage.
• Sustainable use of the Earth’s surface requires an understanding of these natural
processes to minimise negative human impact.

What are Geomorphic Processes?

• Geomorphic processes refer to the natural mechanisms (physical and chemical) that
change the Earth’s surface.
• These include both:
o Endogenic processes (internal): originate from inside the Earth.
o Exogenic processes (external): originate from forces acting on the Earth's surface.

Endogenic Geomorphic Processes

• Include:
o Diastrophism – large-scale deformation of the Earth's crust (e.g., folding, faulting).
o Volcanism – movement of molten rock to the surface, forming landforms.

Exogenic Geomorphic Processes

• Driven by external agents like water, ice, wind, waves.
• Include:
o Weathering – breaking down of rocks in place.
o Mass wasting – movement of weathered material downslope due to gravity.
o Erosion – removal of surface materials by geomorphic agents.
o Deposition – laying down of eroded materials in new locations.

Geomorphic Agents

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 • Natural mobile forces that transport and deposit materials across the Earth’s surface.
• Include:
o Running water
o Groundwater
o Glaciers
o Wind
o Waves and ocean currents
• These agents become mobile due to gradients – differences in elevation or pressure.

Process vs. Agent

• Process: The force or action (e.g., weathering, erosion) that acts upon Earth materials.
• Agent: The medium (e.g., water, ice, wind) that moves and deposits materials.
• Although related, it's important to distinguish between the force applied (process) and
the medium through which it acts (agent).

Role of Gravity
• Gravity is the fundamental force behind almost all geomorphic processes.
It:
o Initiates all downslope movements (e.g., landslides, mass wasting).
o Drives currents, tides, and atmospheric movements indirectly.
o Enables erosion, transportation, and deposition by providing necessary
gradients.
• Without gravity, movement of matter on Earth would not occur.

Importance of Gradients
• All movements in geomorphic processes occur due to differences (gradients):
o Elevational gradients – from higher to lower land.
o Pressure gradients – from high to low pressure.
• These gradients govern the flow of water, air, and geological materials on and beneath
the Earth’s surface.
Endogenic Processes
• These processes are powered by energy from within the Earth, originating from:
o Radioactivity
o Rotational and tidal friction
o Primordial heat from Earth’s formation
• This internal energy drives geothermal gradients and heat flow, resulting in crustal
deformation.
• The action is not uniform across the globe due to variations in:
o Crustal thickness and strength
o Local geothermal gradients

Diastrophism
• Refers to all movements and deformations of the Earth’s crust.
• Includes four main processes:

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 o Orogenic processes – intense folding and mountain building along narrow belts.
o Epeirogenic processes – broad, slow uplift or warping of continental crust.
o Earthquakes – sudden local movements.
o Plate tectonics – large-scale horizontal movements of crustal plates.
• Orogeny results in folded mountains (e.g., Himalayas).
• Epeirogeny is responsible for the vertical movements of large continental masses.
• All diastrophic processes may lead to faulting, fracturing, and metamorphism due to
pressure, volume, and temperature (PVT) changes.

Volcanism
• Involves the movement of molten rock (magma) toward or onto the Earth’s surface.
• Includes the formation of:
o Intrusive forms (formed beneath the surface)
o Extrusive forms (formed on the surface)
• Already explored in earlier chapters under volcanoes and igneous rocks.

Exogenic Processes
• These derive their energy from the atmosphere, ultimately from the Sun.
• Influenced by tectonically created gradients and gravitational stress.
• Slopes allow gravitational forces to move matter downslope.
• Stress (force per unit area) and shear stress cause deformation and disintegration of
rocks.
• Molecular stresses may arise from:
o Temperature changes
o Crystallisation and melting
o Chemical reactions

Denudation
• A collective term for exogenic processes that strip away the surface of the Earth.
• Includes:
o Weathering – disintegration and decomposition of rocks.
o Mass wasting/movement – downslope movement due to gravity.
o Erosion – wearing away and removal of material.
o Transportation – movement of eroded material.
• These processes are climate-dependent and region-specific.

Climatic Influence on Exogenic Processes

• Temperature and precipitation are key climatic factors controlling weathering and
erosion.
• Vegetation also plays a significant role, depending on rainfall and temperature.
• Regional variations in geomorphic activity occur due to:
o Altitude
o Slope aspect (north/south vs. east/west)
o Insolation differences
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 o Wind speed and direction
o Precipitation characteristics (type, intensity)
o Temperature fluctuations
o Freeze-thaw cycles
o Evaporation-precipitation balance

Role of Rock Type and Structure

• The intensity of exogenic processes is also controlled by the type and structure of
rocks:
o Hardness/softness of minerals
o Presence of folds, faults, joints, bedding planes
o Chemical composition
o Permeability
• Rocks respond differently under different climates; one rock type may resist a process
but be vulnerable to another.

Long-Term Impact of Exogenic Processes

• Though slow and often imperceptible, these processes cumulatively reshape Earth’s
surface.
• Even small-scale changes can cause extensive transformation over long periods due to
continuous stress (fatigue).

Weathering
• Defined as the mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks in situ
(on-site).
• No significant movement of materials takes place, differentiating it from erosion or
transportation.
• Controlled by climate, geology, topography, and vegetation.

Types of Weathering
• Chemical Weathering
o Involves chemical changes like oxidation, hydrolysis, and carbonation.
o Dominant in hot and wet climates.
• Physical or Mechanical Weathering
o Includes freeze-thaw cycles, exfoliation, and abrasion.
o Dominant in cold or arid climates with large temperature fluctuations.
• Biological Weathering
o Caused by plant roots, microorganisms, and animal activity.
o Often works in combination with physical and chemical processes.
Chemical Weathering Processes
• Chemical weathering involves decomposition and disintegration of rocks due to chemical
reactions.
• Major processes include solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation, and reduction.

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• These reactions are driven by elements such as oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, and
organic acids.
• Water acts as a medium and catalyst, especially when heat is present, speeding up
reactions.
• Carbon dioxide in the soil increases due to the decomposition of plants and animals,
enhancing weathering.
• Reactions mimic laboratory chemical processes, changing the mineral composition of
rocks.

Physical (Mechanical) Weathering Processes

• Involves breaking down rocks through physical forces without altering their chemical
composition.
• Primary forces include gravitational stress, thermal expansion, crystal growth,
wetting and drying, and animal activity.
• Caused by external mechanical stress such as:
o Overburden pressure and shearing
o Temperature changes (expansion and contraction)
o Freeze-thaw cycles
• Leads to rock fracturing, cracking, and disintegration over time.
• These processes are slow but effective due to repetition and fatigue on rocks.

Biological Weathering
• Occurs due to the activities of organisms like plants, animals, and humans.
• Plant roots penetrate rocks and exert pressure, causing mechanical breakup.
• Earthworms, termites, rodents burrow into the ground, mixing soil and exposing rocks to
moisture and air.
• Humans contribute through agriculture, construction, and deforestation, exposing new
surfaces.
• Decomposing organic matter (plants and animals) produces acids (humic, carbonic)
that chemically weather rocks.
• Biological weathering combines both chemical and physical processes.

Special Effects of Weathering – Exfoliation

• Exfoliation is the peeling or flaking of curved rock layers due to temperature changes,
unloading, or salt crystallization.
• Leads to the formation of smooth, dome-shaped surfaces.
• Not a process itself, but a result of physical weathering.
• Occurs prominently in granite and layered bedrock regions.

Significance of Weathering
• Breaks rocks into regolith and forms soil, providing a foundation for ecosystems.
• Essential for erosion and mass movement; without weathering, erosion has minimal
impact.
• Influences the formation of landforms by aiding relief reduction.

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 • Creates weathering mantles, which support vegetation, thereby shaping biomes and
biodiversity.
• Contributes to the enrichment of economically valuable ore deposits (iron, manganese,
aluminium, copper).
• Through leaching, less resistant materials are removed, concentrating valuable materials.
• This natural concentration process makes mining economically feasible, a process known
as enrichment.
Mass Movements
• Mass movements involve the downslope transfer of rock debris under the direct influence
of gravity.
• Unlike erosion, these do not involve transportation by air, water, or ice, though debris
may carry these with it.
• Movements can range from slow to rapid and affect both shallow and deep layers.
• Weathering is not essential for mass movement, but weathered slopes are more
vulnerable.
• No geomorphic agents (like wind or rivers) are involved in mass movement; hence it is
not categorized as erosion.
• Mass movement occurs when disturbing forces exceed the shearing resistance of
slope materials.
• Factors favoring mass movement include unconsolidated materials, steep slopes,
faults, precipitation, and lack of vegetation.

Activating Causes of Mass Movement

• Removal of support from below (natural or artificial)
• Increase in slope gradient and height
• Overloading due to added material or heavy rain
• Lubrication of slope material by rainfall or seepage
• Earthquakes, explosions, or use of heavy machinery
• Drawdown of water from lakes or reservoirs
• Indiscriminate removal of vegetation

Types of Mass Movements

• Heave: Upward movement of soils, often due to frost.
• Flow: Downward movement of saturated earth material.
• Slide: Movement of material along a surface.
• Fall: Free fall of rock or debris from steep slopes.

Landslides
• Rapid, visible movements involving dry material.
• Slump: Rotational movement of debris with backward tilt.
• Debris Slide: Rapid movement without rotation.
• Debris Fall: Nearly free fall from vertical or overhanging faces.
• Rockslide: Movement along planes (bedding, joints, faults); fast and destructive.
• Rockfall: Free falling of rocks from steep slopes or cliffs; occurs from surface layers.

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Mass Movement in India
• Himalayas experience frequent landslides due to:
o Tectonic activity
o Sedimentary and unconsolidated rocks
o Steep slopes
• Western Ghats & Nilgiris:
o Less tectonically active but still prone due to:
▪ Vertical cliffs
▪ Heavy rainfall
▪ Pronounced temperature changes
=Erosion and Deposition
• Erosion is the removal and transportation of rock debris by agents like:
o Running water
o Glaciers
o Wind
o Waves
o Groundwater
• Deposition happens when erosional agents lose velocity, especially on gentle slopes.
• Coarse particles settle first, finer ones later.
• Erosion and deposition together reshape landforms.

Erosional Agents
• Running Water, Wind, Glaciers: Controlled by climate (gas, liquid, solid states).
• Waves: Work near coastlines; determined by land-sea interface.
• Groundwater: Depends on lithology (rock type), especially soluble and permeable
rocks.

Weathering vs. Erosion vs. Mass Movement

• All three are degradational processes.
• Weathering prepares material.
• Mass movement and erosion transport it.
• Erosion is more powerful in reshaping landforms.

Soil Formation (Pedogenesis)

• Soil is a dynamic, living medium formed through chemical, biological, and physical
processes.
• It supports plant life, retains moisture, and is affected by seasons.

Process of Soil Formation

• Begins with weathering of rocks.
• Colonization by microorganisms, mosses, lichens.
• Organic matter (humus) builds from plant/animal decay.
• Roots and animals loosen and aerate the soil.

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 • A mature soil forms a complex mix of minerals and organic material.

Factors Controlling Soil Formation

• Parent Material:
o In-situ or transported debris.
o Affects soil based on texture, structure, and mineral composition.
o Young soils closely resemble parent rock.
o Specific rocks like limestone influence soil characteristics.
• Topography:
o Affects exposure to sunlight and water drainage.
o Thin soils on steep slopes, thick soils in flat areas.
o Gentle slopes support deep, organic-rich soils.
• Climate:
o Influences moisture, precipitation, humidity, temperature.
o Wet climates cause eluviation (downward washing) and illuviation (accumulation
below).
o Desilication occurs in very wet regions.
o In dry climates, capillary rise brings salts to the surface, forming hardpans.
o In tropical areas, kanker (calcium nodules) forms.
• Biological Activity:
o Adds humus, nitrogen, and organic acids.
o Intense bacterial action in warm climates reduces humus.
o In cold climates, humus accumulates due to slow decay.
o Organisms like earthworms, ants, termites mechanically alter soil.
o Nitrogen fixation by bacteria (like Rhizobium) enriches the soil.
• Time:
o Longer duration of processes = mature soil with well-developed profile.
o Young soils from recent deposits lack distinct horizons.