1.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) / Microprocessor
CPU = Brain of the computer.
It performs all major tasks: calculations, decision making, and controlling
input/output devices.
Microprocessor is the actual silicon chip that contains the CPU.
Functions:
Executes instructions from memory.
Controls all other components of the system.
Works with buses (explained later) to communicate.
2. Von Neumann Architecture
Named after John von Neumann (1945).
Key idea: Both instructions (programs) and data are stored in the same memory.
Uses a single bus system → CPU fetches one thing at a time (instruction or data).
Limitation: “Von Neumann bottleneck” → data/instructions cannot be fetched
simultaneously, slowing performance.
3. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU), and Registers
ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit)
o Performs mathematical operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide).
o Handles logical operations (AND, OR, NOT, comparisons).
CU (Control Unit)
o Directs data flow between CPU, memory, and I/O.
o Controls the execution of instructions step by step.
Registers
o Very small, high-speed memory locations inside the CPU.
o Store temporary data, instructions, memory addresses, etc.
o Examples: Accumulator, Instruction Register, Program Counter.
4. Control Bus, Address Bus, Data Bus
These are communication pathways between CPU, memory, and devices.
o Data Bus → carries actual data (both ways: CPU ↔ memory).
o Address Bus → carries memory addresses (one way: CPU → memory).
o Control Bus → carries control signals (read/write, clock, interrupts).
5. Cores, Cache, and the Internal Clock
Cores:
o A core = a processing unit inside a CPU.
o Multi-core processors (dual, quad, octa) allow multiple instructions to run in
parallel.
Cache:
o Small, very fast memory inside CPU.
o Stores frequently used data and instructions → avoids slower RAM access.
o Levels: L1 (fastest, smallest), L2, L3 (larger but slower).
Internal Clock:
o Synchronizes CPU operations.
o Clock speed measured in GHz (1 GHz = 1 billion cycles/sec).
o Higher clock speed → faster execution.
6. Fetch–Decode–Execute Cycle
This is how the CPU processes every instruction:
1. Fetch – CPU gets instruction from memory using Program Counter.
2. Decode – Instruction is translated into signals (done by CU).
3. Execute – ALU/other units perform the operation.
4. Store/Update – Result stored in register or memory; Program Counter moves to next
instruction.
This cycle repeats billions of times per second.
7. Instruction Set for a CPU
A set of basic instructions the CPU can understand (machine language).
Examples: ADD, SUB, LOAD, STORE, JUMP.
Different CPUs have different instruction sets.
o CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) → many instructions (e.g., Intel
x86).
o RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) → fewer, simpler instructions (e.g.,
ARM processors).
8. Embedded Systems
A special-purpose computer inside a larger system.
Designed to perform dedicated tasks only.
Examples:
o Washing machine controller.
o Car’s ABS system.
o Microwave oven.
Usually low power, compact, and reliable.
✅ So in short:
CPU = brain
Von Neumann = data & instructions together
ALU = math/logic, CU = control, Registers = fast storage
Buses = communication roads
Cores = workers, Cache = superfast memory, Clock = timer
Fetch–Decode–Execute = how CPU runs instructions
Instruction Set = CPU’s language
Embedded Systems = tiny CPUs inside machines