UNIT IV- STABILITY ANALYSIS OF

CONTROL SYSTEMS
Controller Tuning
 Introduction
• The selection of a controller type (P, PI, PID) and its parameters (Kc,
τI, τD) is intimately related to the model of the process to be
controlled
• The adjustment of the controller parameters to achieve satisfactory
control is called tuning.
• The selection of the controller parameters is essentially an
optimization problem, an attempts to satisfy some criterion of
optimality is often referred to as good control.
• A typical criterion for good control is that the response of the system to a
step change in set point or load should have minimum overshoot and one
– quarter decay ratio
• Other criteria may include minimum rise time and minimum settling
time
 Selection of feedback controller
Proportional control
• Accelerates the response of a controlled process
• Produces an offset
Integral control
• Eliminates any offset
• Elimination of the offset usually comes at the expense of higher
maximum deviation
• Produces sluggish, long oscillating responses
Derivative control
• Anticipates future errors and introduces appropriate action
• Introduces a stabilizing effect on the closed loop response of a process
Selection of controller modes
Criteria for good controller
 Controller Tuning
• Use simple criteria such as the one quarter decay ratio, minimum
settling time, minimum largest error.
• It provides multiple solutions. Additional specifications on the closed
loop performance will then be needed to break the multiplicity.
• Use time integral performance criteria such as ISE, IAE, ITAE. This
approach is rather cumbersome and relies heavily on the mathematical
model of the process.
• It is time consuming
• Use semi empirical rules which have been proven in practice
 Cohen and Coon Controller Tuning Method
(OPEN LOOP TUNING)
• The most popular of the empirical tuning methods known as the process
reaction curve method developed by Cohen and Coon.
• Consider the control system, which has been opened by disconnecting
the controller from the final control element
• Introduce a step change of magnitude A in the variable C which
actuates the final control element
• Record the value of the output with respect to time
• The curve is called the process reaction curve
• Cohen and coon observed that the response of most processing units to
an input change, such as above, had a sigmodial shape which can be
adequately approximated by the response of a first order system with
dead time
Cohen and Coon Controller Tuning
Method
Cohen and Coon Controller Settings
 ZIEGLER NICHOLS TUNING
PROCEDURE (CLOSED LOOP TUNING)
• Ziegler and Nichols did not suggest that the ultimate gain (Ku) and ultimate
period (Pu) be computed from frequency response calculations based on the
model of the process. They intended that Ku and Pu be obtained from a closed-
loop test of the actual process.
• 1. After the process reaches steady state at the normal level of operation,
remove the integral and derivative modes of the controller, leaving only
proportional control. On some PID controllers, this requires that the integral
time (τI) be set to its maximum value and the derivative time (τD) to its
minimum value. On modern controllers (microprocessor-based), the integral
and derivative modes can be removed completely from the controller.
 ZIEGLER NICHOLS TUNING
PROCEDURE
• 2. Select a value of proportional gain (Kc), disturb the system, and
observe the transient response. If the response decays, select a higher
value of Kc and again observe the response of the system. Continue
increasing the gain in small steps until the response first exhibits a
sustained oscillation. The value of gain and the period of oscillation that
correspond to the sustained oscillation are the ultimate gain (Ku,) and
the ultimate period (Pu).
• 3. From the values of Ku, and Pu found in the previous step, use the
Ziegler-Nichols rules given in Table to determine controller settings
(Kc,τI,τD).
ZIEGLER NICHOLS TUNING
SETTINGS
The value of ultimate period of oscillation Pu is 3 minutes, and
the ultimate gain Ku is 2. Determine the value of Kc, τI and τD
using Ziegler Nichols tuning rule.
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
• Nyquist plot – Alternative way to represent
the frequency response characteristics of a
dynamic system.
• Uses the Im[G(jω)] as ordinate and
Re[G(jω)] as abscissa.
• Nyquist stability criterion states the
number of encirclements about the critical
point (1+j0) must be equal to the poles of
characteristic equation, which is nothing but
the poles of the open loop transfer function
in the right half of the ‘s’ plane.
UNIT IV- STABILITY ANALYSIS OF
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Controller Tuning
 Introduction
• The selection of a controller type (P, PI, PID) and its parameters (Kc,
τI, τD) is intimately related to the model of the process to be
controlled
• The adjustment of the controller parameters to achieve satisfactory
control is called tuning.
• The selection of the controller parameters is essentially an
optimization problem, an attempts to satisfy some criterion of
optimality is often referred to as good control.
• A typical criterion for good control is that the response of the system to a
step change in set point or load should have minimum overshoot and one
– quarter decay ratio
• Other criteria may include minimum rise time and minimum settling
time
 Selection of feedback controller
Proportional control
• Accelerates the response of a controlled process
• Produces an offset
Integral control
• Eliminates any offset
• Elimination of the offset usually comes at the expense of higher
maximum deviation
• Produces sluggish, long oscillating responses
Derivative control
• Anticipates future errors and introduces appropriate action
• Introduces a stabilizing effect on the closed loop response of a process
Selection of controller modes
Criteria for good controller
 Controller Tuning
• Use simple criteria such as the one quarter decay ratio, minimum
settling time, minimum largest error.
• It provides multiple solutions. Additional specifications on the closed
loop performance will then be needed to break the multiplicity.
• Use time integral performance criteria such as ISE, IAE, ITAE. This
approach is rather cumbersome and relies heavily on the mathematical
model of the process.
• It is time consuming
• Use semi empirical rules which have been proven in practice
 Cohen and Coon Controller Tuning Method
(OPEN LOOP TUNING)
• The most popular of the empirical tuning methods known as the process
reaction curve method developed by Cohen and Coon.
• Consider the control system, which has been opened by disconnecting
the controller from the final control element
• Introduce a step change of magnitude A in the variable C which
actuates the final control element
• Record the value of the output with respect to time
• The curve is called the process reaction curve
• Cohen and coon observed that the response of most processing units to
an input change, such as above, had a sigmodial shape which can be
adequately approximated by the response of a first order system with
dead time
Cohen and Coon Controller Tuning
Method
Cohen and Coon Controller Settings
 ZIEGLER NICHOLS TUNING
PROCEDURE (CLOSED LOOP TUNING)
• Ziegler and Nichols did not suggest that the ultimate gain (Ku) and ultimate
period (Pu) be computed from frequency response calculations based on the
model of the process. They intended that Ku and Pu be obtained from a closed-
loop test of the actual process.
• 1. After the process reaches steady state at the normal level of operation,
remove the integral and derivative modes of the controller, leaving only
proportional control. On some PID controllers, this requires that the integral
time (τI) be set to its maximum value and the derivative time (τD) to its
minimum value. On modern controllers (microprocessor-based), the integral
and derivative modes can be removed completely from the controller.
 ZIEGLER NICHOLS TUNING
PROCEDURE
• 2. Select a value of proportional gain (Kc), disturb the system, and
observe the transient response. If the response decays, select a higher
value of Kc and again observe the response of the system. Continue
increasing the gain in small steps until the response first exhibits a
sustained oscillation. The value of gain and the period of oscillation that
correspond to the sustained oscillation are the ultimate gain (Ku,) and
the ultimate period (Pu).
• 3. From the values of Ku, and Pu found in the previous step, use the
Ziegler-Nichols rules given in Table to determine controller settings
(Kc,τI,τD).
ZIEGLER NICHOLS TUNING
SETTINGS
The value of ultimate period of oscillation Pu is 3 minutes, and
the ultimate gain Ku is 2. Determine the value of Kc, τI and τD
using Ziegler Nichols tuning rule.
 Nyquist Stability Criterion
• Nyquist plot – Alternative way to represent
the frequency response characteristics of a
dynamic system.
• Uses the Im[G(jω)] as ordinate and
Re[G(jω)] as abscissa.
• Nyquist stability criterion states the
number of encirclements about the critical
point (1+j0) must be equal to the poles of
characteristic equation, which is nothing but
the poles of the open loop transfer function
in the right half of the ‘s’ plane.
UCH 2504 Process Instrumentation
Dynamics and Control
Frequency Response
Introduction

► For the stability analysis and design of feedback controllers,

frequency response analysis is very useful.
► When a linear system is subjected to a sinusoidal input, its
ultimate response (after a long time) is also a sustained
sinusoidal wave (will be proved...). This constitutes the basis
of frequency response analysis.
► With frequency response analysis we are interested primarily in
determining how the features of the output sinusoidal wave
(amplitude, phase shift) change with the frequency of the
input sinusoid.
Response of a First Order System to a Sinusoidal Input
For a first order system,

Gp(s) = Y (s) = Kp
X (s) τps + 1

Let X (t) be a sinusoidal input with amplitude A and frequency ω.

X (t) = A sin(ωt)

Then,
Aω
X (s) = s2 + ω2

Hence,
Kp Aω C1 C2 C3
Y (s) = 2 2 = + +
τps + 1 s + ω s + 1/τp s + jω s − jω
First Order System to Sinusoidal Input (contd..)
First Order System to Sinusoidal Input (contd..)
First Order System to Sinusoidal Input (contd..)

Input wave Output wave

φ

0
B
A

B = A × (AR)

0 t
Complex Number
Amplitude Ratio and Phase Shift of First Order System
Amplitude Ratio and Phase Shift of First Order System
(contd..)
Frequency Response of General Linear System
Frequency Response of Pure Capacitive Process
Frequency Response of Second Order System
Frequency Response of Second Order System (contd..)
Frequency Response of Second Order System (contd..)
Graph of tan−1(x )
AR and φ Various Systems for Sinusoidal Input
AR and φ Various Systems for Sinusoidal Input (contd..)
UCH 2504 Process Instrumentation, Dynamics
and Control
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
It is seen that as Kc increases, the system response becomes more
oscillatory. In fact, beyond a certain value of Kc, the successive
amplitudes of the response grow rather than decay; this type of response
is called unstable.
Pole Zero Analysis
Pole-Zero Analysis
STABILITY OF CONTROL SYSTEM
Introduction

► A dynamic system is said to be stable if for every bounded

input it produces a bounded output, regardless of its initial
state. Bounded is an input that always remains between an
upper and a lower limit (e.g.: sinusoidal, step, but not the
ramp).
► If the transfer function of a dynamic system has even one pole
with positive real root, the system is unstable.
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion for Stability

The criterion of stability for the closed-loop systems does not

require calculations of the actual values of the roots of the
characteristic polynomial. It only requires that we know if any root
is to the right of the imaginary axis.

For the characteristic equation (with a0 as positive)

a0sn + a1sn−1 + ···+ an−1s + an = 0

First test: If any of the coefficients of the characteristic equation

a1, a2, . . . , an−1, an is negative, then there is at least one root of
the characteristic equation which has a positive real part, and the
corresponding system is unstable. No further analysis is needed.
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion for Stability (contd..)
Second test: If all coefficients a1, a2, . . . , an−1, an are positive,
then the following analysis by using Routh array is to be made.
The elements of Routh array are written as
Row 1 a0 a2 a4 a6 ···
2 a1 a3 a5 a7 ···
3 A1 A2 A3 · ···
4 B1 B2 B3 · ···
5 C1 C2 C3 · ···
· · · · · ···
· · · · · ···
n+1 V1 V2 · · ···
where a1a2 − a0a3 a1a4 − a0a5 a1a6 − a0a7
A1 = A2 = A3 = ···
a1 a1 a1
A1a3 − a1A2 A1a5 − a1A3
B1 = B2 = ···
A1 A1
B 1 A 2 − A1B2 C2 =
B1A3 − A1B3
C1 = ···
B1 B1
etc.
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion for Stability (contd..)

Examine the elements of the first column of the Routh array:

a0 a1 A1 B1 C1 ... V1

(a) If any of these elements is negative, we have atleast one root

to the right of the imaginary axis and the system is unstable.
(b) The number of sign changes in the elements of the first
column is equal to the number of roots to the the right of the
imaginary axis.
Therefore, a system is stable if all the elements in the first column
of the Routh array are positive.
Solved Problems

Example 1: Checking for Stability

The characteristic equation of a closed loop control system is

s4 + 4s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 3 = 0

Check whether the system is stable or not. (G-1994-28)

Solution:
Characteristic equation:

s4 + 4s3 + 6s2 + 2s + 3 = 0

Routh array:

Row 1 1 6 3
2 4 2
4 × 6 − 1 × 2 = 5.5 4×3−1×0 = 3
3
4 4
5.5 × 2 − 4 × 3 = − 1
4
5.5 5.5
Since the first column of Routh array is having negative element
(i.e., −1/5.5), the given system is unstable.
Solved Problems

Example 2: Maximum Controller Gain for Stability

The characteristic equation of a closed loop system using a
proportional controller with gain Kc is

12s3 + 19s2 + 8s + 1 + Kc = 0

At the onset of instability, the value of Kc is (G-2009-42)

(a) 35/3 (b) 10 (c) 25/3 (d) 20/3

Solution:
The Routh array of the given characteristic equations is given
below:
Row 1 12 8
2 19 1 + Kc
19 × 8 − 12 × (1 + Kc )
3
19
4 1 + Kc
For stability all the elements in the first column of Routh array
should be positive. Therefore,
19 × 8 − 12 × (1 + Kc )
>0
19
i.e., 152 > 12 + 12Kc
=⇒ Kc < 35/3

At values of Kc > 35/3, the closed loop system is unstable.

Solved Problems

Example 3: Number of Negative Roots

Given the characteristic equation below, select the number of roots
which will be located to the right of the imaginary axis (G-2005-47)

s4 + 5s3 − s2 − 17s + 12 = 0

(a) One (b) Two (c) Three (d) Zero

Solution:
The characteristic equation is:
s4 + 5s3 − s2 − 17s + 12 = 0

From the first test of Routh analysis, it is found that the given
system is unstable. To find the number of roots to the right of the
imaginary axis, the second test of Routh analysis is to be done.
Elements of Routh array are calculated as follows:

Row 1 1 −1 12

2 5 −17 0

5 × (−1) − 1 × (−17) = 2.4 5 × 12 − 1 × 0 = 12

3 0
5 5
2.4 × (−17) − 5 × 12 = −42
4 0 0
2.4
(−42) × (12) − 2.4 × 0 = 12
5 0 0
(−42)
The elements of the first column of Routh array are:
[1 5 2.4 − 42 12]. There are two changes here: one from 2.4
to −42 (i.e., positive to negative), another from −42 to 12 (i.e.,
negative to positive). Hence, there are two roots to the right of
the imaginary axis. (b) C
Zero in the First Column of Routh Array
UNIT IV STABILITY ANALYSIS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS