UCH 2504 - Process Instrumentation

Dynamics And Control

Unit III – Closed Loop Systems

Development of Block Diagram
 Objective

• Ability to develop the block diagram for feed back

control system.
Standard Block-Diagram Symbols
• The block diagram can be redrawn and incorporates some standard
symbols for the variables and transfer functions, which are widely
used in the control literature.
• These symbols are defined as follows:
R = set point or desired value
C = controlled variable
ε = error
B = variable produced by measuring element
M = manipulated variable
U = load variable or disturbance
Gc = transfer function of controller
G1 = transfer function of final control element
G2 = transfer function of process
H = transfer function of measuring element
• In some cases, the blocks labeled Gc and G1 will be lumped together
into a single block
• The series of blocks between the comparator and the controlled
variable, which consist of Gc, G1, and G2, is referred to as the
forward path. The block H between the controlled variable and the
comparator is called the feedback path. The use of G for a transfer
function in the forward path and H for one in the feedback path is a
common convention.
• The product GH, which is the product of all transfer functions
(GcG1G2H) in the loop, is called the open-loop transfer function.
We call GH the open-loop transfer function because it relates the
measured variable B to the set point R if the feedback loop is
disconnected (i.e., opened) from the comparator.

Fig 1: Standard Control

system Nomenclature
Overall transfer function for Single-Loop Systems
• Once a control system has been described by a block diagram, such
as the one shown in Fig. 1, the next step is to determine the transfer
function relating C to R or C to U.
• these transfer functions are called as overall transfer functions
because they apply to the entire system.
• These overall transfer functions are used to obtain considerable
information about the control system.
• The response to a change in set point R, obtained by setting U = 0,
represents the solution to the servo problem.
• The response to a change in load variable U, obtained by setting R
= 0, is the solution to the regulator problem.
• Overall transfer Function for Change in Set point:
• For this case, U = 0 and Fig.1 may be simplified or reduced as
shown in Fig.2.
• In this reduction, simple rule of block-diagram Reduction is used
which states that a block diagram consisting of several transfer
functions in series can be simplified to a single block containing a
transfer function that is the product of the individual transfer
functions.

Fig 2: Block Diagram reduction for change in set point

• This rule can be proved by considering two non interacting blocks
in series as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig.3: Two Non-interacting block in series

• This block diagram is equivalent to the equations

• Multiplying these equations gives

Y Z
= G AG B
X Y
• which simplifies to
• Thus, the intermediate variable Y has been eliminated, and the
overall transfer function Z/X to be the product of the transfer
functions GAGB.
• This proof for two blocks can be easily extended to any number of
blocks to give the rule for the general case.
• With this simplification the following equations can be written
directly from Fig.2.b.
C = Gε …(1)
B = HC …(2)
ε=R-B …(3)
• Since there are four variables and three equations, we can solve
the equations simultaneously for C in terms of R as follows:
C = G(R - B) (From Eq (3))
C = G(R-HC) (From Eq (2))
C = GR-GHC
or finally
….(4)
Overall Transfer Function for Change in Load
• In this case R = 0, and Fig.1 is drawn as shown in Fig.4. From the diagram
we can write the following equations:
C = G2(U+M) …(5)
M = GcG1ε …(6)
B = HC …(7)
ε = -B …(8)
• Again the number of variables (C, U, M, B, ε) exceeds by one the number
of equations, and we can solve for C in terms of U as follows:
C = G2(U + GcG1ε) (From Eq(6))
C = G2[U + G2G1(-HC)] (From Eq(7)&(8))
or finally

• where G = GcG1G2. The transfer functions for load change or set

point change have denominators are identical, 1 + GH.
Fig.4: Block Diagram for change in load
 Block Diagram Reduction

• Determine the transfer function Y(s)/X(s) for the

block diagrams shown. Express the results in terms
of Ga, Gb and Gc
 Outcome

• At the end of the lecture, the students would be

able to develop the block diagram for feed back
control systems.
 References
• Coughanowr, D., “ Process Systems Analysis and Control “,
3rd Edn., McGraw Hill, New York, 2008.

• Stephanopoulos, G., “Chemical Process Control“, Prentice

Hall of India, 2003.
UCH 2604 - Process Instrumentation
Dynamics And Control

Unit III – Closed Loop Systems

Introduction
 Objective

• To understand the concept of closed loop control

system and the components in control system
 Contents
• Closed loop control systems, development of block diagram for feed-
back control systems, servo and regulatory problems, transfer
function for controllers and final control element, principles of
pneumatic and electronic controllers, transient response of closed-
loop control systems and their stability
 The Control system
• Let us consider a liquid stream at a
temperature T’i enters an insulated,
well-stirred tank at a constant flow rate
w (mass/time).
• It is desired to maintain (or control) the
temperature in the tank at TR by means
of the controller.
• If the measured tank temperature Tm,
differs from the desired temperature
TR, the controller senses the difference
or error, ε = TR - Tm, and changes the
heat input in such a way as to reduce
the magnitude of ε. Fig.1 Control System of a
• If the controller changes the heat input Stirred tank heater
to the tank by an amount that is
proportional to ε , we have
proportional control
• The source of heat input q may be electricity or steam. If an electrical
source were used, the final control element might be a variable
transformer that is used to adjust current to a resistance heating
element;
• If steam were used, the final control element would be a control
valve that adjusts the flow of steam. In either case, the output signal
from the controller should adjust q in such a way as to maintain the
temperature in the tank
Components of a Control System
The system may be divided into the following components:
1. Process (stirred-tank heater).
2. Measuring element (thermometer).
3. Controller.
4. Final control element (variable transformer or control valve).
Block Diagram
• For computational purposes, it
is convenient to represent the
control system of Fig. 1 by
means of the block diagram
shown in Fig. 2.
• Such a diagram makes it much
easier to visualize the
relationships among the various
signals.
• New terms, which appear in
Fig. 2, are set point and load.
Fig.2: Block Diagram of a
The set point is a synonym for
the desired value of the Simple Control System
controlled variable. The load
refers to a change in any
variable that may cause the
controlled variable of the
process to change.
• In this example, the inlet temperature T’i is a load variable. Other
possible loads for this system are changes in flow rate and heat loss
from the tank.

• The control system shown in Fig. 2 is called a closed-loop system or a

feedback system because the measured value of the controlled
variable is returned or “fed back” to a device called the comparator.

• In the comparator, the controlled variable is compared with the

desired value or set point.

• If there is any difference between the measured variable and the set
point, an error is generated. This error enters a controller, which in
turn adjusts the final control element in order to return the
controlled variable to the set point.
Negative Feedback versus positive Feedback
• The feedback principle, which is illustrated by Fig. 2, involves the use
of the controlled variable T to maintain itself at a desired value TR.

• The arrangement of the apparatus of Fig. 2 is often described as

negative feedback to contrast with another arrangement called
positive feedback.

• Negative feedback ensures that the difference between TR and Tm is

used to adjust the control element so that the tendency is to reduce
the error.

• If the signal to the comparator were obtained by adding TR and Tm we

would have a positive feedback system, which is inherently unstable.
Servo Problem versus Regulator Problem
• The control system of Fig. 2 can be considered from the point of view of
its ability to handle either of two types of situations.
•
• In the first situation, which is called the servomechanism-type (or servo)
problem, we assume that there is no change in load Ti and that we are
interested in changing the bath temperature according to some
prescribed function of time. For this problem, the set point TR would be
changed in accordance with the desired variation in bath temperature.

• If the variation is sufficiently slow, the bath temperature may be

expected to follow the variation in TR very closely.

• The other situation will be referred to as the regulator problem. In this

case, the desired value TR is to remain fixed and the purpose of the
control system is to maintain the controlled variable at TR in spite of
changes in load Ti.
 DEVELOPMENT OF BLOCK DIAGRAM

• Each block in Fig. 2 represents the functional relationship existing between

the input and output of a particular component.
• In block-diagram representations of control systems, the variables selected
are deviation variables, and inside each block is placed the transfer function
relating the input-output pair of variables.
• Finally, the blocks are combined to give the overall block diagram.
• This is the procedure to be followed in developing Fig. 2.
Process
• Consider first the block for the process. Here two input variables are
present; however, the procedure for developing the transfer function
remains the same as in Unit I.
• An unsteady-state energy balance around the tank gives

…(2.1)

where To is the reference temperature.

• At steady state, dT/dt is zero, and Eq. (2.1) can be written
….(2.2)

• where the subscript s has been used to indicate steady state.

• Subtracting Eq. (2.2) from Eq. (2.1) gives
…(2.3)
• If we introduce the deviation variables
Ti’ = Ti - Tis ….(2.4)
Q=q - qs ….(2.5)
T’= T - Ts ….(2.6)
• Eq. (2.3) becomes
…..(2.7)

• Taking the Laplace transform of Eq. (9.7) gives

….(2.8)

• Or
…(2.9)
• The last expression can be written as
…(2.10)

• Where

• If there is a change in Q(t) only, then Ti‘(t) = 0 and the transfer

function relating T’ to Q is
…(2.11)

• If there is a change in Ti’(t) only, then Q(t) = 0 and the transfer

function relating T’ to Ti’ is

…(2.12)
• Equation (2.10) is represented by the block diagram shown in Fig. 3a.
• This diagram is simply an alternate way to express Eq. (2.10) in terms of the
transfer functions of Eqs. (2.11) and (2.12). Superposition makes this
representation possible.
• The summing junction symbol, which is standard in the control literature,
may have several inputs but only one output.
• A block diagram that is equivalent to Fig. 3a is shown in Fig. 3b.

Fig. 3: Block Diagram for process

Measuring Element
• The temperature-measuring element, which senses the bath
temperature T and transmits a signal Tm to the controller, may
exhibit some dynamic lag.
• From the discussion of the mercury thermometer, we observed
this lag to be first-order.
• In this example, we shall assume that the temperature-
measuring element is a first-order system, for which the transfer
function is
…(2.18)

• where the input-output variables T’ and Tm’ are deviation

variables, defined as
T’= T - Ts
Tm’= Tm - Tms
• Note that, when the control system is at steady state, Ts= Tms
which means that the temperature-measuring element reads the
true bath temperature.
Controller and Final Control Element
• For convenience, the blocks representing the controller and the final
control element are combined into one block. It is assumed that the
controller is a proportional controller.
• The relationship for a proportional controller is
q = Kcε+A ….(2.19)
where ε = TR - Tm
TR = set-point temperature
Kc = proportional sensitivity or controller gain
A = heat input when ε = 0
• At steady state, it is assumed that the set point, the process
temperature, and the measured temperature are all equal to each
other; thus
TRs = Ts = Tms …..(2.20)
• Let ε’ be the deviation variable for error; thus
ε’ = ε-εs …..(2.21)
where εs = TRs - Tms
• Since TRs = Tms ,εs = 0 and Eq. (2.21) becomes
ε’ = ε- 0 = ε ….(2.22)
• This result shows that ε is itself a deviation variable.
• Since εs = 0, Eq. (9.19) becomes at steady state
qs = Kcεs, + A = 0 + A = A
• Equation (2.19) may now be written in terms of qs; thus
q = Kcε + qs
or
Q = Kcε …(2.23)
where Q = q - qs
• The transform of Eq. (2.23) is simply
Q(s) = Kcε(s) …(2.24)
• Note that ε , which is also equal to ε ‘, may be expressed as
ε = TR - TRs - (Tm – Tms) ….(2.25)
or
ε = TR’ – Tm’ …(2.26)
• Equation (2.25) follows from the definition of ε and the fact that TRs = Tms.
• Taking the transform of Eq. (2.26) gives
ε(S) = TR’(s) – Tm’(s) (2.27)
• The transfer function for the proportional controller given by Eq. (2.24) and
the generation of error given by Eq. (2.27) may be expressed by the block
diagram shown in Fig. 2.6.

Fig.2.5: Block Diagram of Fig.2.6: Block Diagram of

measuring element Proportional controller
Block Diagram of Control System
Controllers and Final control elements:
• As shown in Fig. 2.2, the input signal to the controller is the error and the output
signal of the controller is fed to the final control element. In many process control
systems, this output signal is an air pressure and the final control element is a
pneumatic valve that opens and closes as air pressure on the diaphragm changes.

• For the mathematical analysis of control systems, it is sufficient to regard the

controller as a simple computer.

• For example, a proportional controller may be thought of as a device that receives

the error signal and puts out a signal proportional to it.

• Similarly, the final control element may be regarded as a device that produces
corrective action on the process. The corrective action is regarded as
mathematically related to the output signal from the controller.
(a) pneumatic control, (b) electronic control, (c) computer or microprocessor-based
control.
MECHANISMS
Control Valve
• The control valve shown in Fig. 2.7 contains a pneumatic device (valve motor) that
moves the valve stem as the pressure on a spring-loaded diaphragm changes.
• The stem positions a plug in the orifice of the valve body. As the pressure increases,
the plug moves downward and restricts the flow of fluid through the valve. This
action is referred to as air-to-close.
• The valve may also be constructed to have air-to-open action. Valve motors are
often constructed so that the valve stem position is proportional to the valve-top
pressure.
• Most commercial valves move from fully open to fully closed as the valve-top
pressure changes from 3 to 15 psig.
• In general, the flow rate of fluid through the valve depends upon the upstream and
downstream fluid pressures and the size of the opening through the valve.
• Assume for simplicity that at steady state the flow (for fixed upstream and
downstream fluid pressures) is proportional to the valve-top pneumatic pressure. A
valve having this relation is called a linear valve.
Fig 2.7: Pneumatic control
valve (air–to-close)
Fig.2.8: Schematic Diagram of Control System
 Block diagram of Level Controller

[Link]
Controller
• The control hardware required to control the temperature of a stream leaving a
heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 2.8. This hardware, consists of the following
components listed here along with their respective conversions:
• Transducer (temperature to current).
• Controller-recorder (current to current).
• Converter (current to pressure).
• Control valve (pressure to flow rate).
• Figure 2.8 shows that a thermocouple is used to measure the temperature; the
signal from the thermocouple is sent to the transducer, which produces an output in
the range of 4-20 ma, which is a linear function of the input.
• The output of the transducer enters the controller where it is
compared to the set point to produce an error signal.
• The controller converts the error to an output in the range of 4-20
mA according to the control law stored in the memory of the
computer.
• The output of the controller enters the converter, which produces an
output in the range of 3-15 psig, which is a linear function of the
input.
• Finally, the output of the converter is sent to the top of the control
valve, which adjusts the flow of cooling water to the heat exchanger.
We shall assume that the valve is linear and is the pressure-to open
type.
• Electricity is needed for the transducer, controller, and converter. A
source of 20 psig air is needed for the converter.
Equivalent block for transducer, controller, and converter.
IDEAL TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
Control Valve
• A pneumatic valve always has some dynamic lag, which means that
the stem motion does not respond instantaneously to a change in the
applied pressure from the controller.
• From experiments conducted on pneumatic valves, it has been found
that the relationship between flow and valve-top pressure for a linear
valve can often be represented by a first-order transfer function; thus

where K, is the steady-state gain, i.e., the constant of proportionality

between steady-state flow rate and valve-top pressure, and τv is the
time constant of the valve.
• In many practical systems, the time constant of the valve is very small
when compared with the time constants of other components of the
control system, and the transfer function of the valve can be
approximated by a constant
Q( s)
= Kv
P( s)
Controllers
• The transfer functions for the controllers frequently used in industrial
processes are discussed in this section. Because the transducer
and the converter will be lumped together with the controller for
simplicity, the result is that the input will be the measured variable x
(e.g. temperature, level, etc.) and the output will be a pneumatic
signal p. Actually this form (X as input and p as output) applies to a
pneumatic controller.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL.
• The proportional controller produces an output signal (pressure in
the case of a pneumatic controller, current or voltage for an
electronic controller) that is proportional to the error E. This action
may be expressed as
P = Kcε + ps …(2.28)
where p = output signal from controller, psig or ma
K, = gain, or sensitivity
ε = error = set point - measured variable
ps = a constant
• In a controller having adjustable gain, the value of the gain Kc can be
varied by moving a knob in the controller. The value of p s is the value of the
output signal when ε is zero, and in most controllers ps can be adjusted to
obtain the required output signal when the control system is at steady state
and ε = 0.
• To obtain the transfer function of Eq. (2.28), we first introduce the deviation
variable
P =p-ps
into Eq. (2.28). At time t = 0, we assume the error ε, to be zero. Then ε is
already a deviation variable.
• Equation (2.28) becomes
P(t) = Kcε(t) …(2.29)
• Taking the transform of Eq. (2.29) gives the transfer function of an ideal
proportional controller
P (s )
= Kc
 (s )
• The term proportional band is commonly used among process
control engineers in place of the term gain.
• Proportional band (pb) is defined as the error (expressed as a
percentage of the range of measured variable) required to move the
valve from fully closed to fully open.
ON-OFF CONTROL.
• A special case of proportional control is on-off control.
• If the gain Kc is made very high, the valve will move from one
extreme position to the other
• if the pen deviates only slightly from the set point. This very sensitive
action is called on-off action because the valve is either fully open
(on) or fully closed (off); i.e., the valve acts like a switch.
• This is a very simple controller and is exemplified by the thermostat
used in a home-heating system. The bandwidth of an on-off
controller is approximately zero.
• PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL (PI) CONTROL. This mode of control is
described by the relationship
t
Kc …(2.40)
p = K c +
I   dt + p
0
s

where Kc = gain
τI = integral time, min
ps = constant
• In this case, we have added to the proportional action term, K cε, another
term that is proportional to the integral of the error. ,The values of K c and τI
may be varied by two knobs in the controller.
• To visualize the response of this controller, consider the response to a unit
step change in error. This unit-step response is most directly obtained by
inserting ε = 1 into Eq.(2.40), which yields
• To obtain the transfer function
of Eq. (2.40), we again
introduce the deviation
variable P = p - ps into Eq.
(2.40) and then take the
transform to obtain

…(2.41)

• The reciprocal of τI is often

termed as reset rate.

Fig 2.10: Response of a PI controller

to a unit step change in error.
• PROPORTIONAL-DERIVATIVE (PD) CONTROL. This mode of
control may be represented by
…(2.42)

where Kc = gain
τD = derivative time, min
ps = constant
• In this case, we have added to the proportional term another term,
KcτD dε/dt , which is proportional to the derivative of the error.
• The values of Kc and τD may be varied separately by knobs on the
controller.
• Other terms that are used to describe the derivative action are rate
control and anticipatory control.
• The action of this controller can be visualized by considering the
response to a linear change in error
• This response is obtained by
introducing the linear function
ε(t) = At into Eq. (2.42) to
obtain
p(t) = AKct + AKcτD + ps
• To obtain the transfer function
from Eq. (2.42) we introduce
the deviation variable P = p -
ps and then take the transform
to obtain

…(2.43) Fig 2.11: Response of a PD Controller

to a linear input in error
• PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE (PID) CONTROL.
This mode of control is combination of the previous modes and is
given by the expression
d K c
t
p = K c + K c D +   dt + ps …(2.44)
dt  I 0
• In this case, the controller contains three knobs for adjusting Kc,τD
and τI. The transfer function for this controller can be obtained
from the Laplace transform of Eq. (2.44); thus

…(2.45)
Motivation for Addition of Integral and Derivative Control Modes
• Consider the tank-temperature control system after a step change in
Ti. The value of the controlled variable is seen to rise at time zero
owing to the disturbance.
• With no control, this variable continues to rise to a new steady-state
value.
• With control, after some time the control system begins to take
action to try to maintain the controlled variable close to the value
that existed before the disturbance occurred.
• With proportional action only, the control system is able to arrest the
rise of the controlled variable and ultimately bring it to rest at a new
steady-state value.
• The difference between this new steady-state value and the original
value is called Offset.
• As shown by the PI curve, the
addition of integral action
eliminates the offset; the
controlled variable ultimately
returns to the original value.
• This advantage of integral action
is balanced by the disadvantage
of a more oscillatory behavior.
• The addition of derivative action
to the PI action gives a definite
improvement in the response.
The rise of the controlled variable
is arrested more quickly, and it is
returned rapidly to the original
value with little- or no oscillation Fig.2.12: Response of a typical control
system showing the effects of various
modes of control
 Self Assessment Questions
• Differentiate between negative feedback and positive
feedback
• What is meant by on-off control?
• Express the proportional controller
 Outcome

• At the end of the lecture, the students would be

able to understand the concept of closed loop
control system and the components in control
system
 References
• Coughanowr, D., “ Process Systems Analysis and Control “,
3rd Edn., McGraw Hill, New York, 2008.

• Stephanopoulos, G., “Chemical Process Control“, Prentice

Hall of India, 2003.