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Introduction to Airport markings, Runway marking, Lighting of

runway approaches, taxiways and aprons, Air traffic control – objectives,

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control system, control network – visual aids – landing information
system.

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 The main activities of the airport include the landings and take offs of the

aircraft not only during daytime but also at night under good or bad
weather conditions.

 For a pilot who is negotiating at a considerable height, the area of airfield

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looks like a tiny small spot and in order to guide him properly, the runways,
taxiways and other allied components of the airport should be properly
marked so that they can be easily interpreted by the pilot.

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 The visual aids are installed at the airport to achieve the following purposes:

 To avoid accidents during landing of the aircraft.

 To convey to the pilot the ground to air visual information required during landing.

 To direct the pilot to make the landing of the aircraft in the landing area only.

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 To enable the pilot to locate and identify the particular feature specified by the

marking.

 To grant safety to the persons and properties.

 To maintain an orderly flow of aircraft without any congestion.

 To satisfy the visual requirement for take off and landing.

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Aids for pilots to perform landing and take off operations safely

2 Types:

• Airport Markings

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• Airport Lighting

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 For assisting the pilots in guiding the aircraft on the runways and taxiways, the

pavements are marked with lines and numbers.

 These airport markings are of benefit to the pilots for recognizing the various airport

elements during daylight and dusk.

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 At night, the lights are used to guide the pilots in loading and manoeuvring in the airport.

 The white colour is used for all the markings on the runways and for the markings on the

aprons and taxiways, the colour used is yellow.

 In addition, the wind direction indicators are also essential at every airport.

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 Types:

1. Apron Marking

2. Runway Marking

3. Taxiway Marking

4.

5.
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Shoulder Marking

Landing Direction Indicator

6. Wind Direction Indicator

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 Guide lines to help the pilots in maneuvering the aircraft on the apron.

 Guide line indicates the path of the nose gear of the aircraft.

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 Yellow paint is used for marking.

 Paints used should be fuel resistant since aprons are subjected to fuel

spillage.

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 Following are the markings made on the runways:

 Runway centre-line marking

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 Runway edge stripe marking

 Runway numbering

 Runway threshold marking

 Runway touch down zone or landing zone marking

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Runway centre-line marking
The centre-line of the runway is represented by a broken strip running along the

entire length of the runway.

Its width is 90cm.

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Runway edge stripe marking
 The runway edges are normally marked.

 But when the width of runway exceeds 45m, the side stripes in the form of long

continuous lines 90 cm wide may be marked near the edges.

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Runway numbering
 The end of each runway is marked with a number which indicates the magnetic
azimuth (the angle measured in a clockwise direction from the north of the runway in
the direction of landing).
 Thus, the east end of an east-west runway would be marked 27 (for 2700) and the west
end 9 (for 900) as shown in fig. 9-4

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 Fig. 9-5 shows the runway numbering of a system of three intersecting runways.

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Runway numbering
 If there are 2 or more parallel runways following letters are added to

the azimuth numbers:

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 Two parallel runways……………….L, R (ie, left and right)

 Three parallel runways……………..L, C, R

 Four parallel runways………………L, R, L, R

 Five parallel runways……………….L, C, R, L, R

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Two or more parallel runways

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Two parallel runways……………….L, R

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Two or more parallel runways

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Three parallel runways……………...L, C, R

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Two or more parallel runways

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Four parallel runways……………….L, R, L, R

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Two or more parallel runways

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Touch down or landing zone
 The runway touch down or landing zone is indicated by series of stripes arranged

symmetrically about the centre-line.

 No. of strips decreasing gradually in the direction of landing.

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Threshold marking
 The runway threshold is indicated by series of parallel lines starting from a distance

of 6m from the runway end.

 The threshold markings are in the form of stripes 3.60m wide spaced 0.90m clear and

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placed symmetrically on either side of the runway centre-line.

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 A single continuous 15cm wide yellow strip is used to mark the centre-line

of the taxiway.

 At intersections of the taxiways with the runway ends, the centre-line of

the taxiway is terminated at the edge of the runway.

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 At all other intersections of the taxiways with the runways, the centre-line

of the taxiway is extended to the centre-line of the runway.

 Holding line marking – minimum 30m from runway.

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 Yellow stripes 90 cm wide placed 30 m apart.

 Runway shoulders are marked with diagonal lines (at 45°) whereas taxiway

and holding apron shoulders are marked with stripes perpendicular to the
direction of aircraft.
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 Blast pads (Paved area adjacent to the ends of the runway designed to stop

erosion due to jet blast) marked with Chevron or V-shaped lines.

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 To indicate landing direction, an arrow or tee is placed at the centre of a

segmented circle.

 Indicates the direction of active runway of airport.

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 Painted in orange or white.

 Fixed at distinct place and lighted during night

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 The direction from which wind blows is indicated at the airport by a wind cone.

 Wind cone placed at centre of segmented circle together with landing direction

indicator.

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 Should be visible from a height of 30 m.

 Different colors – red and white; orange and white etc.

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 Visibility of markings reduces during night time and in poor

weather conditions.

 To highlight the important features of runways, taxiways and


aprons.
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Guidance provided during landing- Alignment Guidance, Height
Information, Distance Estimation, Roll Guidance.

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Factors Affecting the Type and Intensity of Airport Lighting:

 Airport classification

 Amount of traffic


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Availability of power

Nature of aircraft using the airport

 Type of night operations planned

 Type of the landing surfaces provided

 Weather conditions
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Elements of Airport Lighting
1. Airport beacon

2. Approach lighting

3. Apron and hanger lighting

4.

5.
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Boundary lighting

Lighting of landing direction indicator

6. Lighting of wind direction indicator

7. Runway lighting

8. Taxiway lighting

9. Threshold lighting 36
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1. Airport Beacon
 A beacon is a strong beam of light which is used to indicate any geographical

location.

 It is mounted over the top of terminal building or hanger.

 It is visible to the pilot from a long distance and it indicates the approximate

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location of the airfield which is equipped for night operations.

 If the obstruction is yet not cleared, a separate tower may be provided for the

installation of the rotating beacon.

 The beacon is rotated at six revolutions per minute.

 It gives out white and green flashes in the horizontal directions 1800 apart.
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Airport Beacon

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2. Approach Lighting
 Before the runway actually begins, there is a sequence of high-intensity lighting

arrangement for a length of 900m.

 The pilot can see from these approach lights whether his aircraft is centered

correctly.
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 The approach lights are normally mounted on pedestals of varying height to

accommodate any irregularities in the ground ensuring that the lights themselves are
always level.

 Two arrangements are adopted for the approach lighting:

 (i) Calvert system

 (ii) ICAO system 40

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2. Approach Lighting
i. Calvert System
 It is widely used in Europe and other parts of

the world.

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 It was developed by E.S. Calvert in Great

Britain.

 In this, there are six transverse rows of lights

of variable length placed at a centre to centre

distance of 150m.

 The roll guidance is principally provided by

the transverse rows of light. 42

 Approach Lighting
Calvert System

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2. Approach Lighting
ii. ICAO System

 Known as centre-line configuration.

 The roll guidance is provided by bars 4.2m in length, placed at 30m centre to centre

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on the extended centre-line of the runway and a single crossbar 300m from the
threshold.

 The 4.2m long bars consist of five closely spaced lights to give the effect of a

continuous bar of light.

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 Approach Lighting
ICAO System

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 Approach Lighting
ICAO System

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3. Apron and hanger lighting
 The apron and hanger areas are flood lit for the convenience in servicing and

loading.

 The flood-lighting system constitutes a projector designed to be arranged to

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illuminate a surface.

 These lights are mounted in such a way that they do not cause glare in the

eyes of the pilots, passengers and service personnel.

 It is recommended that the flood lights should be placed at a height of not less

than 12 m above the pavement.

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4. Boundary lighting
 The entire boundary of the airfield is provided with lights at a centre to centre

distance of about 90m with height of about 75 cm from the ground.

 If a fence is provided along the boundary, these lights should be placed inside

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the fence at distance of about 3m.

 For indicating the hazardous approach, the boundary lights are provided with

the red marker lights.

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5. Lighting of landing direction indicator
 The landing direction indicator is illuminated with suitable lighting arrangement so

that the airport can be used at night also.

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6. Lighting of wind direction indicator
 The wind direction indicator is illuminated by four 200 watts angle
reflectors placed 1.8m above the top of the cone for providing a


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continuous lighting at any position of the cone.

Such an arrangement grants the use of the wind direction indicator at

night and during bad weather conditions.

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7. Runway lighting
 After crossing the threshold, the pilot must complete a touchdown and roll out on

the runway.

 The planning of the runway lighting is carried out in such a way that the pilot

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gets enough information on alignment, lateral displacement, roll and
distance.

 For runway lighting, a more precise design commonly known as narrow gauge

pattern is almost universally used at major airports.

 In this system, groups of high intensity lights are placed 18m apart and on

either side of the centre line of runway.

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7. Runway lighting
 They continue upto a distance of 1140m from the threshold.

 Beyond this distance closely spaced lights are placed along the centre line which

extend upto the other end of the runway.

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 All the lights provided on the runway are white in colour and of flush type (i.e. they

do not protrude more than 1 cm above the surface of the pavement).

 The runway edge lights are of elevated type and they are white in colour except for

the last 600m of an instrument runway facing the pilot which are of yellow colour to
indicate a caution zone.
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8. Taxiway lighting
 Adequate lighting aids should be provided so that taxiways are not confused
with runways.

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The edge lights should not extend more than 75cm above the pavement
surface.

 The exits from the runways should be so lighted that the pilots are able to locate
the exits 360m to 400m ahead of the point of turn.

 The intersections of taxiways and runway-taxiway crossings should be clearly

marked.
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8. Taxiway lighting
 The taxiway edge lights are blue and the taxiway centre-line lights are
green.

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Yellow lights are provided at the intersection of taxiway with runway.

The spacing of lights is reduced on the curves and the intersections to

facilitate easy identification. The spacing varies from 6m for a curve of
radius 4.5m to 60m for a curve of 300m.

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9. Threshold lighting
 At large airports, the threshold is identified by a complete line of green lights

extending across the entire width of the runway.

 They must be of semi-flush type i.e protruding not more than 12cm above the

surface.
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 At small airports, the threshold is identified by four lights on each side of the

threshold. They can be of elevated type i.e. protruding more than 12cm above the
surface.

 The threshold lights in the direction of landing are green and in the opposite

direction, they are red to indicate the end of the runway.

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9. Threshold lighting

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 Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based air

traffic controller who direct aircraft on the ground and through a given
section of controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to
aircraft in non-controlled airspace.

 The primary purpose of ATC worldwide is to prevent collisions,

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organize and expedite the flow of air traffic, and provide
information and other support for pilots.

 Air traffic controllers monitor the location of aircraft in their assigned

airspace by radar and communicate with the pilots by radio.

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 To prevent collisions, ATC enforces traffic separation rules, which

ensure each aircraft maintains a minimum amount of empty space

around it at all times.

 The air traffic control ensures that the aircraft move safely and

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conveniently from one airport to the other airport.

 The control measures guide the take off of the aircraft from the

airport, keep in contact with the pilot en route and help the pilot in
landing operation at the destination airport.

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 The main aims of an efficient air traffic control system are as follows:

 It avoids the possibility of occurrence of the accidents in the air.

 It grants the economic and efficient utilization of the aircraft and the airports.

 It guides the aircraft to their destinations safely and speedily.

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 It increases the confidence of the passengers using the facility of air travel.

 It separates the aircraft to a safe distance during their flight both vertically and

horizontally.

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2 Types:

a) Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

 A set of regulations under which a pilot operates an aircraft in good weather

conditions when aircraft can maintain safe operation by visual means.

 Pilot is responsible.

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b) Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)

 A set of regulations under which a pilot operates an aircraft when visibility falls

below that prescribed under VFR.

 Aircraft operation will be through referencing the instruments rather than visual

reference.
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 Air traffic control personnel is responsible.
 The network for controlling the air traffic can be divided into three parts :

 Control Centres

 Control Towers

 Flight Service Stations

 The method of traffic control for each system depends upon the weather

conditions.

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Control Centres

 The Air Route Traffic Control Centres (ARTCC) have the responsibility of controlling

the movement of the aircraft along the airways.

 Each centre has control over a definite geographical area and at the boundary points,

the aircraft are released to an adjacent centre.

 The functions of ARTCC are separate from the airport operations. But to eliminate the

expenses of additional communication facilities, they are generally located at the

airports.

 The ARTCC are primarily concerned with the control of the aircraft operating under

IFR.
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Control Centres

 The changes in flight plan en route are permitted only if approved by the

ARTCC.

 The ARTCC are located at major airports and their zones of influence are

demarcated in such a way that the entire country is covered under them.

 The number of controllers at the ARTCC will be determined by considering the

average number of the aircraft to be handled, the complexity of traffic and the
degree of automation provided.

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Control Towers

 The Air Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) is located in the terminal area and it

supervises, directs and monitors the traffic at the airport.

 The tower is responsible for issuing clearances to all arriving and departing

aircraft and for providing the pilots with the information such as temperature,
wind direction, barometric pressure, operating conditions of the airport etc.

 The ATCT is located in a commanding position so that a clear view of the entire

airfield is obtained.

 The walls of the ATCT are fitted with inclined glass panels to minimize the glare

and reflection.
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Control Towers

 They may sometimes be coloured to avoid the strain on the eyes of the controllers.

 The glass panels facing the airfield are equipped with wipers so that they can be

maintained clean even during the rains.

 The ATCT is generally provided at the top of the administrative building.

 The ATCT with approach control facilities directs the aircraft to the airports

through a number of specific points which are located with a radius of about
40 km from the tower.

 The aircraft are brought to these points by the ARTCC and they are taken over

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 If the traffic is heavy, the aircraft are detained at this place known as the

holding fix and they are required to keep moving with a vertical separation
of 300m.

 They are released for landing, one by one, by the ATCT.

 For the ATCT without the approach control facilities, the detention and

clearing of the aircraft for landing are done by the ARTCC and they are
taken over by the ATCT after the aircraft have started their landing approach.

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Flight service stations

 The Flight Service Stations (FSS) are located along the airways and at the

airports.

 They relay the air traffic control messages between the ARTCC and en

route aircraft.

 They also furnish necessary information to the pilots, before flight and in

flight, on weather, navigational aids, airports that are out of

commission, changes in the procedures, new facilities etc.

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 Aids available to pilot during landing.

 The followings aids are available to the pilot of the aircraft:

1. Instrument landing system

2. Precision approach radar

3. Airport service detection equipment

4. Airport surveillance radar

5. Approach lights

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1. Instrument landing system (Blind Landing System)

 It consists of tele-communication aids to the pilot to enable him to

approach the runway and make a successful landing even under poor
visibility conditions.

 ILS consists of 3 components

a) Localizer antenna

b) Glide slope antenna

c) Outer and middle marker

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1. Instrument landing system (Blind Landing System)
a) Localizer Antenna
 A radio transmitter of very high frequency omni-directional range (VOR)
 Emits radio beam signals in vertical plane
 Indicates to the pilot whether he is to the left or right of the correct alignment
for approach to the runway
 Located along the extended centre line of runway
b) Glide slope antenna
 Also a radio transmitter of very high frequency omni-directional range (VOR)
 Emits radio beam signals at an angle of 2˚ to 3˚ from the horizontal
 Indicates to the pilot the correct angle of descent or approach to the runway
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1. Instrument landing system (Blind Landing System)
c) Outer and middle markers
 Small radio transmitters which serve as position reporting
points
 As pilot passes over the marker, he finds a visual indication in the
cockpit and receives a high pitched steady tone through his
earphone
 Outer marker –located 7 km ahead of runway threshold – purple
indication
 Middle marker - located 1 km ahead of runway threshold – amber
indication

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Instrument landing system – Working (Step 1)
 Each aircraft is brought to holding point by means of enroute aids where it is
taken over by control tower

 If two or more aircrafts reach holding point simultaneously, they are detained
by control tower

 They are directed to keep moving round in space with a vertical separation of
atleast 300m (refer fig)

 Every two minutes the control tower directs the aircraft at the bottom of the
stack to move out for final approach to the airport

 Simultaneously other aircrafts in the stack are instructed to descend to the next
lower level and keep moving round 84
Instrument landing system – Working (Step 2)
 As aircraft slides out from the bottom position, it is picked up by localizer

 Localizer antenna provides alignment guidance

 Glide slope antenna provides guidance for angle of approach

Instrument landing system – Working (Step 3)

 As aircraft passes over outer and middle markers, pilot receives a high pitched
steady tone and also finds visual indication in cockpit

Instrument landing system – Working (Step 4)

 As aircraft crosses over the middle marker, pilot changes over from instrumental
to visual flight system (IFR to VFR)
 Now the approach and runway lighting assist the pilot in visual landing 85
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2. Precision approach radar

 Serves the same purpose as ILS but passes the information to the pilot

through hearing aids.

 Gives the controller a picture of descending aircraft both in elevation

and plan.

 Thus controller can determine whether the aircraft is on glide path and

correct alignment

 ILS is more preferred due to:

o PAR does not provide any direct information to pilot

o It places too much control on the controller in the tower 87

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3. Airport Service Detection Equipment (ASDE)

 Provides a pictorial display of the runways, taxiways and terminal areas

along with the positions of the aircrafts.

 Aids the controller in regulating traffic on high intensity airports.

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4. Airport Surveillance Radar(ASR)

 It provides to the control tower operator an overall picture of airspace

surrounding the terminal.

 ASR rotates 360 degree and has the range of 50-100 Km.

 Indicate the direction and speed of aircraft.

 It does not indicate the altitude of aircraft.

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5. Approach Lights

 The pilot has to change from the instrument to visual conditions as he

approaches the most critical point of the runway threshold.

 To aid this, lights are installed on the approach to the runway as

well as on the runways.

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