Module 2

Runway

VJCET 1
 SYLLABUS

Runway Design – Wind rose diagram and orientation

of runway, wind coverage and crosswind component,
factors affecting runway length, basic runway length,
and corrections to runway length, runway geometrics
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and runway patterns (configurations). Design of
taxiways and aprons, Terminal area planning,
obstructions, approach zone, zoning laws, airport
capacity, airport size (introduction only).
 Runway
• It is defined as a long and comparatively narrow strip of land which
is selected or prepared for the landing and take off of aircraft along
its length.

• It is usually paved except for small aerodromes

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• No. of runways - volume of air traffic

• Orientation of runway - direction of wind & area available for

airport

• Runway is usually oriented in the direction of wind

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 Runway

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VJCET 4
 Runway

How does Aircraft Fly?

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VJCET 5
 Runway Orientation
According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) a
runway is defined as a rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for
landing and takeoff of aircraft.

Runway orientation is defined as the process of fixing the magnetic bearing

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of the centerline of the runway.

Data required for runway orientation

Maps of area and contours

Wind data

Fog characteristics of the area

VJCET 6
 Runway Orientation
Maps of area and contours: To examine the flatness of area and the
possible changes in the longitudinal profile so as to keep them within
permissible limits.

Wind Data: Direction, duration and intensity of the prevailing wind in the

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vicinity of the airport for development of wind rose diagram.

Fog characteristics of the area: To examine the amount of fog in that

particular area and check it will affect the vicinity of that particular area.

Orientation of runway is the direction of runway along its length and its
positioning with respect to the direction of the wind prevailing at the
airport site. VJCET 7
 Runway Orientation
1. Preliminary information to be collected:
• Maps of the area showing contours
• Records of direction, duration and intensity of the wind and fog
characteristics

2. Head wind: TRACE KTU

• Wind blowing from opposite direction of the head or nose of the
aircraft while it is landing or taking off
• Provide braking effect during landing and greater lift on wings
during aircraft take off
• Thus the length of runway gets reduced
VJCET 8
 Runway Orientation
Tail Wind: The wind blowing in the same direction as landing or
takeoff is termed as tail wind.

It provides push from the back thus increasing stop distance or lift off
distance.

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VJCET 9
Runway Orientation
Types of Wind

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VJCET 10
 Runway Orientation
3. Cross wind component
• The transverse component of the wind making an angle of 90 ᵒ with the
direction of aircraft movement is known as cross wind.
• If the wind contains large component of cross wind then the aircraft may
not safely on the runway.
• For Light and medium weight aircraft the Cross Wind component

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Should not exceed 25kmph

VJCET 11
 Runway Orientation
4. Wind coverage:
• % of time in a year during which the cross wind component remains
within the limit of 25kmph
• Orientation of runway – Minimum wind coverage of 95%
• For busy airports: 98% to 100%

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5. Calm Period - Period for which wind intensity remains less than
6 km/hr

VJCET 12
 Runway Orientation
6. Wind Rose Diagram
• For the airport, the average wind data of 5 to 10 yrs period are collected
and represented graphically in the form of a chart is known as Wind
Rose Diagram
• Irregular shape resembling a rose

Objectives
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• Determining most suitable runway orientation
• Estimating runway capacity
Methods
Type – I : Showing direction and duration of wind
Type – II : Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind

VJCET 13
 Wind Rose Diagram Type I
• Wind data is based on direction and duration
• Minimum 8 directions is taken but optimum is 16
• Radial line - wind direction
• Each circle – duration of wind to a certain scale
• Duration of winds are marked on radial lines

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• Plotted points are joined by straight line
• The best runway orientation – along the longest line on wind rose
diagram
• Does not consider the effect of cross wind component

VJCET 14
Wind Rose Diagram Type I

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VJCET 15
Wind Rose Diagram Type I

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VJCET 16
Wind Rose Diagram Type I

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VJCET 17
Wind Rose Diagram Type I

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VJCET 18
Wind Rose Diagram Type I

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VJCET 19
 Wind Rose Diagram Type II
• Wind data is based on direction, duration, intensity
• Each circle - wind velocity to some scale
• The influence of wind is assumed to spread at an angle of 22.5ᵒ in a
direction.
• Radial line from centre are drawn up to midpoint of two directions thus
dividing the space in to 16 directions and 64 parts.
• V < 6 kmph - “Calm Period” Separate circle for calm period
•
•
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Radial Line - wind direction
Duration of wind velocities – shown in appropriate sector
• A transparent rectangular template or paper strip (length> diameter
of wind rose diagram; width = 2* 25kmph) is placed on the wind rose
diagram.
• The template is rotated and placed along a particular direction, total wind
coverage for that direction is calculated
• Best runway orientation – direction which gives maximum wind
coverage
VJCET 20
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 21
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 22
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 23
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 24
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 25
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 26
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 27
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 28
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 29
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 30
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 31
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 32
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 33
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 34
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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VJCET 35
Wind Rose Diagram Type II

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Best runway orientation - Max. wind coverage

VJCET 36
TRACE KTU

Mumbai airport runway

VJCET 37
 Change in direction of a Runway
1. Excessive grading : If the orientation of runway demands excessive
grading and earthwork, it will have to be suitably modified even
though it might have been satisfactory with respect to the safe
approaches and wind coverage.
2. Noise nuisance : The location of runway should be such that it does
not create excessive noise nuisance to the surrounding developed
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residential areas and public places of importance. This factor may also
sometimes cause the change in direction of the runway as decided by
the wind rose diagram.
3. Obstructions : The absence of obstructions in the layout of the
runway is more important than the consideration of the permissible
cross wind component. Hence, the runway direction providing fewer
obstructions in the approach zone is preferred to one having greater
wind coverage.
 Runway patterns or Configuration
1. Single runways
2. Parallel runways
3. Intersecting runways
4. Divergent or open –V runways

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VJCET 39
Runway patterns or Configuration

Fig. Type

a Single runway

b Parallel

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staggered

d,e,f Intersecting

g,h Divergent or Open

V

VJCET 40
 Runway patterns
1. Single runways
• Simplest pattern
• Adopted when wind blows in one direction for most of the time in a
year .
• Only one operation at a time
• Single runway can handle about 45 to 60 operations or movements
per hour.
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VJCET 41
 Runway patterns
2. Parallel runways

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VJCET 42
 Runway patterns
2. Parallel runways
• Capacity depends on no. of runways and spacing between the
runway.
• 2 or 4 parallel runways
• Spacing b/w parallel runways are classified as
• Close spacing- 210m to 750m, dependent (50-60 operations)
•
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Intermediate spacing- 750m to 1300m, independent (60 to 75
operations)
• Far spacing- >1300m, independent(100 to 25 opertions)
• If runways are too close it may result in reduction of capacity

VJCET 43
 Runway patterns
3. Intersecting runways

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VJCET 44
 Runway patterns
3. Intersecting runways
• Two or more intersecting runways
• Used when wind in one direction alone does not provide the
required wind coverage of 95%
• If cross wind components are favorable , both the runways can be
used simultaneously for landing and takeoff, each runway for one

•
movement
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Capacity – location of intersection
4. Divergent or Open V runways
• Runways diverge in direction without intersecting each other.
• The divergent runway revert to a single runway when the winds are
strong from one direction.

VJCET 45
 Runway Length
Basic runway length is the length of runway based on the
following assumed conditions:
 No wind is blowing on the runway
 Aircraft is loaded to full capacity
 Airport is situated at sea-level
 No wind blowing on the way to destination
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 Runway has zero effective gradient
 Standard temperature is maintained along the way
 Standard temperature of 15 ˚C exists at airport

VJCET 46
 Runway Length
• The basic runway length is determined from the performance
characteristics of aircrafts using the airports.
•The manner in which aircraft performs the landing and take
off decide the length of runway

•Following 3 cases are considered:

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1. Normal Landing
2. Normal take off
3. Engine Failure Case (Stopping in emergency)

VJCET 47
 Runway Length
1. Normal Landing

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•The aircraft should come to a stop within 60% of the landing
distance assuming that the pilot makes an approach at the proper
speed and crosses the threshold of the runway (beginning of
runway) at a height of 15 metres.

•The runway of full strength pavement is provided for entire landing

distance
VJCET 48
 Runway Length

1. Normal Landing

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VJCET 49
 Runway Length
2. Normal take off

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VJCET 50
 Runway Length
2. Normal take off

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VJCET 51
 Runway Length
2. Normal take off
• Take-off distance (TOD) = 115% of the actual distance the
aircraft uses to reach a height of 10.5 m
• Field length = Runway + Clearway
• Clearway
– an area beyond runway not less than 150m wide,
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centrally located about the extended centreline of
runway and under the control of airport authorities
– free from obstructions
– upward slope not more than 1.25%
– length not more than [(TOD – 115% of LOD)/2]

VJCET 52
 Runway Length
3. Engine Failure Case (Stopping in emergency)

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VJCET 53
 Runway Length
3. Stopping in emergency

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VJCET 54
 Runway Length
3. Stopping in emergency
• The engine failure case ma require either a clearway or
stepway or both.
• Stopway: a rectangular paved area at the end of runway, in the

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direction of take-off, in which an aircraft can be stopped after
an interrupted take-off due to engine failure
• The strength of stopway pavement should be sufficient to
carry the weight of aircraft without causing an structural
damage.
VJCET 55
Corrections to Basic Runway Length
1. Correction for elevation
2. Correction for temperature
3. Correction for gradient

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VJCET 56
 Corrections to Basic Runway Length
1. Correction for elevation:
• As per ICAO recommendation, the basic runway length should
be increased at the rate of 7% per 300m rise in elevation of
airport above the mean sea level

𝟕
• 𝐂𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 = ∗ 𝐛𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐜 𝐫𝐮𝐧𝐰𝐚𝐲 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 ∗
TRACE KTU
𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝟑𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎

• This correction is required because air density reduces as

the elevation increases which in turn reduces the lift on the
wings of the aircraft.
• Thus the aircraft will require more ground speed and
longer runway will be required.

VJCET 57
Corrections to Basic Runway Length
2. Correction for temperature
• After correction for elevation, correction for
temperature has to be done
• Airport reference temperature, ART= Ta+((Tm-
Ta)/3)
Ta – Mean of average daily temperature of the hottest month of the
year
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Tm - Mean of maximum daily temperature of the hottest month of the
year

• Standard temperature at Mean Sea Level (MSL) = 15˚C

• Standard temperature at the given elevation from
MSL, decreases by 0.0065 ˚C per m rise in elevation
• Standard temperature at the given elevation =15-
(0.0065 * given elevation) or 6.5ᵒ C per thousand
meter rise in [Link] 58
 Corrections to Basic Runway Length
2. Correction for temperature

• The basic runway length should be increased at the rate

of 1% for every 1 ˚C rise in airport reference
temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature
at that elevation.
𝟏
•
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𝐂𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 =
𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 ∗ (𝐀𝐑𝐓 −
𝟏𝟎𝟎
∗

𝐬𝐭𝐝 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩 @ 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧)

• Combined correction for elevation and temperature

should not be >35% of the basic runway length

VJCET 59
Corrections to Basic Runway Length
3. Correction for gradient
• Effective gradient =
(Highest point – Lowest point)/Total length of runway
• After elevation and temperature correction, correct length
at the rate of 20% for every 1% of the effective gradient

• TRACE KTU
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟎
∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ∗
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕

VJCET 60
Corrections to Basic Runway Length

𝟕
1. 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
∗ 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄 𝒓𝒖𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ∗
𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟑𝟎𝟎

𝟏
2. 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
∗ 𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 ∗

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(𝐀𝐑𝐓 − 𝐬𝐭𝐝 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩 @ 𝐠𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧)

𝟐𝟎
3. 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎
∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ∗
𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕

VJCET 61
 Problem 1

• Runway of an airport is situated at an elevation of 250m and has an

effective gradient of 0.3%. Airport reference temperature is 18°C. the
basic runway length is 2500m. Determine the actual required length
of runway.

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VJCET 62
 Problem 1
• Given,
• Basic runway length = 2500 m
• Elevation = 250 m above MSL
• ART = 18 °C
• Effective gradient = 0.3%

1. TRACE KTU
Correction for elevation
7 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 100 ∗ 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ∗ 300

7 250
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∗ 2500 ∗ = 145.83 m
100 300

• Corrected length = 2500 + 145.83 = 2645.83 m

VJCET 63
 Problem 1

2. Correction for temperature

• Standard temperature at the given elevation =15- (0.0065 * 250) =
13.375 °C
1
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = ∗ corrected length ∗ (ART −
100
std temp @ given elevation)
1
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
122.37 m TRACE KTU 100
∗ 2645.83 ∗ (18 − 13.375)

• Corrected length = 2645.83 + 122. 37 =2768.2 m

=

3. Check for total correction for elevation and temperature

2768.2−2500
• Total correction in % = *100 =10.73%
2500
• Total correction, 10.73% < 35%, Hence OK

VJCET 64
 Problem 1
4. Correction for gradient
20
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 100 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ∗ 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
20
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 100 ∗ 2768.2 ∗ 0.3 = 166.09 𝑚
• Corrected length = 2768.2 +166.09 = 𝟐𝟗𝟑𝟒. 𝟐𝟗𝒎

TRACE KTU

VJCET 65
 Problem 2

• Length of a runway at mean sea level, standard temperature and zero

gradient is 1500m. The site has an elevation of 1000m above MSL,
with reference temperature of 34 °C. The runway has to be
constructed with an effective gradient of 0.26%. Determine the
actual length of the runway at the site.

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VJCET 66
 Problem 2

• Given,
• Basic runway length = 1500 m
• Elevation = 1000 m above MSL
• ART = 34 °C

1.
•
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Effective gradient = 0.26%
Correction for elevation
7 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 100 ∗ 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ∗ 300

7 1000
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 100 ∗ 1500 ∗ =350 m
300

• Corrected length = 1500 + 350 = 1850 m

VJCET 67
 Problem 2

2. Correction for temperature

• Standard temperature at the given elevation =15- (0.0065 * 1000) = 8.5
°C
1
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = ∗ corrected length ∗ (ART −
100
std temp @ given elevation)
1
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
TRACE KTU 100
∗ 1850 ∗ (34 − 8.5)= 471.75 m
• Corrected length = 1850 + 471.75 =2321.75 m

3. Check for total correction for elevation and temperature

2321.75−1500
• Total correction in % = *100 =54.78%
1500
• Total correction, 54.78% > 35%, Hence need to be examine

VJCET 68
 Problem 3

• The length of a runway under standard conditions is 1500m. The

airport is to be provided at an elevation of 110m above mean sea
level. The airport reference temperature is 32°C. Following data
refers to the proposed longitudinal section of runway. Determine the
corrected length of runway.

End to end of runway (m) Grade (%) End to end of runway (m) Grade (%)

0 to 300 +1 1500 to 1800 +1

300 to 900 -0.2 1800 to 2100 -0.3

900 to 1500 +0.5

VJCET 69
 Problem 3

• Given,
• Basic runway length = 1500 m
• Elevation = 110 m above MSL
• ART = 32 °C

1. Correction for elevation

7 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 100 ∗ 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ∗ 300

7 110
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 100 ∗ 1500 ∗ 300 =38.5 m

• Corrected length = 1500 + 38.5 = 1538.5 m

VJCET 70
 Problem 3

2. Correction for temperature

• Standard temperature at the given elevation =15- (0.0065 * 110) =
14.285 °C
1
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = ∗ corrected length ∗ (ART −
100
std temp @ given elevation)
1
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = ∗ 1538.5 ∗ (32 − 14.285) =
100
272.55 m
• Corrected length = 1538.5 + 272.55 =1811.05 m

3. Check for total correction for elevation and temperature

1811.05−1500
• Total correction in % = *100 =20.74%
1500
• Total correction, 20.74% < 35%, Hence OK

VJCET 71
 Problem 3
4. Correction for gradient
Chainage (m) Gradient (%) RL (m)

0 100Bench Mark Assumed)

300 +1 1
100+( ∗ (300 − 0)) = 103
100

900 -0.2 0.2

103-( ∗ (900 − 300) = 101.8
100

1500 +0.5 0.5

101.8+( ∗ (1500 − 900) = 104.8
100

1800 +1 1
104.8+( ∗ (1800 − 1500) = 107.8
100

2100 -0.3 0.3

107.8-( ∗ (2100 − 1800) = 106.9
100

• Highest RL=107.8m
• Lowest RL=100m

VJCET 72
 Problem 3

+1% 1
∗ (300 − 0)
100

0 300

0.2 -0.2%
∗ (900 − 300)
100

300 900

VJCET 73
 Problem 3
4. Correction for gradient

Effective gradient =
((Highest point – Lowest point)/Total length of
runway)*100
• Effective gradient =
( (107.8–100)/1811.05)*100 =0.43%

20
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ∗
100
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
20
• 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = ∗ 1811.05 ∗ 0.43 = 155.75𝑚
100
• Corrected length = 1811.05 +155.75 = 𝟏𝟗𝟔𝟔. 𝟖𝒎

VJCET 74
 Problem 4
• The data below refers to the daily temperature for the hottest month of
a year for a given airport site. Determine the airport reference
temperature.

VJCET 75
 Problem 4

1311.6
• Mean of maximum daily temperature, 𝑇𝑚 = = 43.72 °C
30
789.7
• Mean of average daily temperature, 𝑇𝑎 = = 26.32 °C
30

• Airport reference temperature, ART= Ta+((Tm-

Ta)/3) =32.12°C

VJCET 76
 Runway Geometric Design
ICAO gives various geometric standards for the
Airport runway design
Runway Length
Runway Width
Width and Length of safety area
Transverse Gradients
Longitudinal and Effective gradient
Sight Distance
Runway Shoulder
Rate of change of Longitudinal Gradient

VJCET 77
Runway Geometric Design

VJCET 78
Runway Geometric Design

VJCET 79
Runway Geometric Design

VJCET 80
Runway Geometric Design

VJCET 81
Runway Geometric Design

VJCET 82
Runway Geometric Design

VJCET 83
VJCET 84
VJCET 85
VJCET 86
VJCET 87
VJCET 88
VJCET 89
VJCET 90
VJCET 91
VJCET 92
VJCET 93
Loading Apron (Apron)

 Paved area adjacent and in front of the terminal building

 Defined area of airport to accommodate aircrafts for loading
and unloading of passengers & cargo, parking, refueling etc
 Size of loading aprons depend upon
a) Size of gate position (loading area required for each aircraft)
b) Number of gate positions
c) Aircraft parking system

VJCET 94
Loading Apron (Apron)
a) Size of gate position:
 Depends on:
i. Size of aircraft and its minimum turning radius
ii. Manner in which aircraft enters and leaves the gate position
under its own power or by being towed
iii. Aircraft parking configuration
 Types of aircraft parking
 Nose-in parking
 Angled nose-in parking
 Nose-out parking
 Angled nose-out parking
 Parallel parking

VJCET 95
Loading Apron (Apron)
 Types of aircraft parking configuration

VJCET 96
Loading Apron (Apron)
 Types of aircraft parking
 Nose in and angled-nose in
• Lower noise level
• Front door passenger loading
• No jet blast towards terminal building
• Problem of using rear door
• Large power required for maneuvering aircraft out of gate position

VJCET 97
Loading Apron (Apron)
 Types of aircraft parking
 Nose out and angled-nose out
• Less power required for maneuvering aircraft out of gate position
• Rear loading door is close to terminal building
• Small gate area is required
• Higher noise level
• Jet blast toward terminal building

VJCET 98
Loading Apron (Apron)
 Types of aircraft parking
 Parallel parking
• Front and rear doors can be used for loading of passengers
• Requires large gate area
• Jet blast and noise directed towards other adjacent gate position

VJCET 99
Loading Apron (Apron)
b) Number of gate positions:
 Depends on:
i. Peak hourly aircraft volume
ii. Gate occupancy time
iii. Gate utilization factor
 Number of gate positions = CT/U
where C – design volume (aircraft/hr)
T- weighted average gate occupancy time (hr)
U- gate utilization factor (0.5 to 0.6)

VJCET 100
Loading Apron (Apron)
c) Aircraft parking systems:
• Aircrafts can be grouped adjacent to terminal buildings in
various ways. These groupings are referred to as the aircraft
parking systems.

i. Frontal/ Linear system

ii. Open apron/ Transporter system
iii. Pier / Finger system
iv. Satellite system

VJCET 101
Loading Apron (Apron)
c) Aircraft parking systems:
i. Frontal / Linear system
• Aircrafts are parked along the face of the terminal
building
• Simple and economical
• Use is limited only to small airports requiring few gate
positions

VJCET 102
Loading Apron (Apron)
c) Aircraft parking systems:
ii. Open apron/ Transporter system
• Aircrafts are parked in rows
• If number of aircrafts is large, passengers may have to
walk long distances to reach the aircrafts parked in
outermost row. Thus they are subjected to weather, noise
and hot blast of jet aircrafts
• Vehicular transport need to be provided

VJCET 103
Loading Apron (Apron)
c) Aircraft parking systems:
iii. Pier/ Finger system
• Processing of passengers/baggage done in terminal
building
• Facilities for entering and leaving aircarfts require
extensions of terminal building
• Such extensions are known as piers or fingers
• Straight, T-shaped or Y-shaped
• Piers can be fenced open walkway or closed structure,
single or multistoreyed
• Expanded in incremental steps as the demand increases
without disturbing the central processing facility.

VJCET 104
Loading Apron (Apron)
c) Aircraft parking systems:
iii. Pier/Finger system

VJCET 105
Loading Apron (Apron)
c) Aircraft parking systems:
iv. Satellite system
• Satellites- Small buildings located on apron
• Aircrafts are parked around satellite buildings which are
connected to main terminal buildings by surface,
underground or above ground connectors

VJCET 106
Holding Apron

VJCET 107
Holding Apron
• Located adjacent to the ends of runways where aircrafts are
briefly parked before taking off
• Aircraft is held due to:
• Runway being busy
• Engine warming up
• Cockpit/instrument check up before taking off
• Should be sufficiently large so that if one aircraft is unable to
take off due to some reasons, another aircraft can bye-pass it
• Size should be large enough to accommodate 2 -4 aircrafts and
to allow one additional aircraft to bypass without any difficulty
• The aircraft departing from the holding apron should enter the
runway at an angle < 90˚

VJCET 108
VJCET 109
VJCET 110
Taxiway design

VJCET 111
Taxiway design

VJCET 112
Taxiway design

VJCET 113
Taxiway design

VJCET 114
Taxiway design

VJCET 115
Taxiway design

VJCET 116
Taxiway design

VJCET 117
Taxiway design

VJCET 118
Taxiway design

VJCET 119
Taxiway design

VJCET 120
Taxiway design

VJCET 121
Taxiway design
Provide access to aircrafts from the runway to the loading
apron or service hangar and back.

Layout of taxiway
Landed aircraft should not interfere with aircraft taxiing for
take-off
Many exit taxiways for busy airports
Shortest practicable distance from apron to runway end
Avoid intersection of taxiway & runway
Exit taxiways designed for high turnoff speed reducing
runway occupancy time and increasing airport capacity.
VJCET 122
 Types of taxiways
• Apron taxiway – located on the periphery of an apron

• Dual parallel taxiway – 2 taxiways parallel to each other on

which airplanes can taxi in opposite directions

• Terminal taxilane – taxiway on an apron used for access to gate

positions

VJCET 123
TERMINAL BUILDING
A building which is mainly used for passengers ,airline staff and
administrative management. This topic can be discussed in
following 6 sub-divisions:

1. Design objectives

2. Facilities to be provided

3. Noise control

4. Planning considerations

5. Site selection

6. Space requirements
1. Design objectives

The designer should consider combination of various

objectives which can be grouped in the following 4 categories

a) Airline objectives

b) Airport management objectives

c) Community objectives

d) Passenger objectives
2. Facilities to be provided

• Banks • Post office

• Fresh up facilities • Restaurant and snack bar
• Bookshops facilities
• Cloak rooms and lockers • Rest rooms and toilets on
every floor
• General information desk
and tourist offices • Space for nursing mothers
• Medical shops • Space for customs,
immigration, inspection of
• Medical unit and first aid passengers, crew and baggage
centre
 3. Noise control

• There will be considerable noise inside the terminal building due to

the presence of the passengers.

• Some of the portions like the room of control tower from where the
information is to be sent outside, is to be constructed of noise-proof
material.

• The designer of terminal building should study the problem of

noise control and make suitable provisions for the control of noise
in some of the specific rooms in the terminal area.
 4. Planning considerations

Centralized system
• In this system, all the passengers,
baggage and cargo are routed
through a central location and then
passed on to the respective aircraft
positions.

• Convenient when parking area is

within a walking distance of 180m.

• Economical
 4. Planning considerations
Decentralized system

• In this system, all the passenger facilities

are arranged in smaller units and repeated
in one or more buildings .

• Each unit is arranged around aircraft gate

positions

• All airline functions are carried out

adjacent to the departing plane

• Uneconomical when number of gates

exceeds 6.
 4. Planning considerations

Decentralized - Centralized system

• Combination of centralized and

decentralized system.

• Each individual airline operation

is centralized.

• Also known as the unit terminal

principle.
 5. Site selection

a. It should be centrally located with respect to the runways.

b. It should have convenient and easy access to the highway.

c. It should have enough provision for future expansion.

d. It should have favourable orientation with respect to wind,

topographical features of the area etc.

e. There should be adequate space available for the parking of the

vehicles

f. The site should have easy facility of natural drainage

g. The utilities like water, sewage and telephone should be easily

available
 6. Space requirements

• Influenced by the level of service desired.

• FAA has indicated that gross terminal area space requirements
between 7.43 to 11.15 m2/1000 annual enplaned passenger are
reasonable.
• The approximate percentages of space among the various purposes in
a terminal building as recommended by the FAA are given below
airline operations = 38%
airport administration = 17%
public space = 30%
Utilities, shops, etc.. = 15%
total = 100%
 Approach Zone
Approach surface is trapezoidal in shape.

It is longitudinally centered on the extended centerline of the runway.

It has upgrade from its beginning near that extremity of the runway which
is on the landing side.

It sides diverge as they extend away from the extremity of the runway.

It is applied to each end of a runway.

Approach zone means all that land which lies directly under an
imaginary approach surface centered on the extended centerline at
each end of a runway.

VJCET 133
Approach Zone

VJCET 134
 Zoning Laws
• The forming of suitable zoning laws is an essential part of an airport
master plan.

• The airports are involved two types of zoning

Height zoning: It is aimed to protect the approaches to the airport

from the obstructions.

It regulates the heights of structures on land surrounding the

airport.

The standards of height are formed by keeping in mind the size of

the airport and the type of aircrafts using it.
VJCET 135
 Zoning Laws
Land use zoning:
It governs the type of development. The uses can be classified as
closely or remotely related to the aviation.
 Closely related uses include terminal building, parking, aprons,
runways, taxiways and maintenance facilities.
The non-aviation uses relate to the commercial, industrial and
recreational activities.
The smoke obstructs visibility and hence the industries giving out
smoke and dust are not allowed.
The agricultural use of certain type may be permitted as long as
they do not attract birds.
It is necessary to prepare the zoning map showing property lines,
land use patterns, permissible height of structures, limit of
applicability of zoning laws,etc
VJCET 136
 Airport Capacity
• The number of aircraft movements which an airport can process
within a specified period of time is defined as airport capacity.

• The following factors affect airport operating capacity;

Runway configuration and connected taxiways
Aircraft characteristics and their arrival to departure ratio
Weather conditions
Terrain and man-made obstructions
Loading apron space
Navigational aids
Aircraft processing technique
Runway configuration and connected taxiways
• The capacity of an airport depends upon its runway
configuration.
• The pattern of runway to be finally adopted at the site depends
upon the volume of air traffic to be handled, direction, duration
and intensity of wind, availability of suitable approaches.
• Appurtenant taxiways are important to clear the landing aircraft
as soon as possible
Weather conditions
• Airport capacity is usually less during IFR than VFR conditions
• In clear weather conditions, the aircrafts on final approach to
runway can be spaced closer during poor visibility conditions
Aircraft characteristics and their arrival to
departure ratio

• Smaller and slower aircrafts occupy runway for less time and
can be spaced closer than bigger and faster aircrafts.

• Therefore, the capacity of airport serving smaller aircrafts is

generally higher than the one serving bigger and faster aircrafts.

• Landing operations are prior than taking off operation.

• Arriving to departure ratio influence aircraft capacity.

Terrain and man-made obstructions

• Obstructions in vicinity of airport restrict the number of inbound

and outbound air routes from airport
Loading apron spacing
• Delay in terminal area may be caused due to lack of space for
loading, unloading and parking aircrafts

• Also reduce the number of aircraft operations

Navigational aids
• Important in poor visibility conditions

• Airport with ILS facility to two runways or one runway in both

direction have more capacity than airport with one ILS approach

• Radar and surveillance radar can process aircraft more rapidly

Aircraft Processing Technique
• Delays can be reduced by rapid process of aircraft by a
controller through proper computer facility.
 Airport size
• The following four factors affect the necessary size of an airport.
1. Elevation of the airport site
• The performance of any airplane varies at different altitudes due to
the variation in the temperature and density of air.
• The higher the site, the smaller will be the density of air and
consequently the greater runway length will be required.
2. Meteorological conditions
• The direction of wind and its velocity will decide the no of runways
and their configuration or arrangement.
• The temperature influences the runway length. The increase in
temperature results in the decrease of air density and hence on a hot
day an aircraft will require a considerably larger run before taking
off.
VJCET 142
 Airport size
3. Performance characteristics of aircrafts

• The aircraft requiring the longest run in landing or taking off will
decide the length of the runway in a particular direction.

• The airport size should be determined in consultation with airlines,

aircraft manufactures and other users of the airport.

4. Volume of traffic

• It depends on the no of runways , arrangement of taxiway and the

size of the ramp area.

VJCET 143