MINING
This is the extraction of mineral ore from the ground.
● Match rock type with mineral occurrence
Diamonds - found in igneous rocks/kimberlite rocks /volcanic rocks.
Coal - found in sedimentary rocks.
Copper - found in igneous rocks/metamorphic rocks /basement rocks.
Map showing distribution of major rock types and minerals in Botswana
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● Describe and explain factors influencing exploitation of minerals
- Geological occurrence – it is expensive to mine minerals that are very deep in the ground.
Depth of mineral also determines method of mining used.
- Quantity of the mineral ore – more profit from large quantities of mineral.
- Ore content/concentration of the mineral – e.g. copper ore in Botswana contains 2-3%
copper content compared to Zambia’s 6% copper content
- Quality of the mineral ore – high quality mineral would guarantee market potentials.
- Labour supply – required in mining
- Market – is the mineral in demand or not.
- Water supply – needed in processing.
- Power supply – availability of power
- Government policy – this may either attract or repel companies willing to invest in mining
operations.
Case Studies - Mining in Botswana
Diamond mining
Geological occurrence of diamonds
- Found in old volcanic pipes
- Found in kimberlite pipes
- Crystalized carbons
Location: Orapa, Letlhakane and Jwaneng
* Name and locate on a sketch map of Botswana an area of diamond mining. Use two
geographical features to help you locate the area. (3 marks)
(Draw map)
Factors that influenced the mining of diamonds in Botswana
- Large quantity/amount of diamonds
- Diamonds near the surface hence mining cheaper
- High quality diamonds (gemstones)
- Large capital from De Beers Mining Company
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- Good market (USA)
- Skilled labour
- Power supply from Morupule Power Station
- Water supply
- Government policy
Method of mining diamonds
Open pit/open cast as the minerals are close to the surface.
Processing of diamonds
Processing of diamonds includes
crushing, concentration, sorting,
grading, valuing, cutting and
polishing.
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Uses of diamonds
Industrial diamonds – used for making cutting, drilling and polishing tools
Gemstones – used for making jewellery
Explain how diamonds have contributed to the economy of Botswana
- Creation of employment which improved the standard of living
- Generated large amount of government revenue for the development of the country
- Many people trained therefore improved skills
- Development of infrastructure to improve service delivery
- Raw materials which attract other industries
- Diversifies economy which reduces reliance on one economic sector
- Generated large foreign exchange enabling the country to buy imports cheaply
Copper Nickel mining
Geological occurrence of Copper Nickel
- Found in basement rocks which are old igneous rocks
- Combined with other minerals such as nickel and cobalt
Location: Selibe-Phikwe
Factors which influenced mining of copper nickel at Selibe-Phikwe
- The ore is of high quality
- Good transport network, tarred road and railway line
- Water supply from Shashe dam
- Power supply from Morupule power station
- Coal from Morupule colliery mine
- Labour from Selibe-Phikwe and surrounding areas
Method of mining copper
- Shaft
- Initially open cast was used from 1973 to 1980. In 1974 shaft mining started being used as
depth of the mineral ore incfreased.
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Shaft mining method
Dangers associated with shaft mining
- Rock falls
- Subsidence/collapse of the mine
- Flooding
- Gas explosions
- High temperatures
- Poor ventilation/lack of oxygen/suffocation
- Cage accidents
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Processing of copper nickel
Includes crushing and grinding,
concentration and smelting.
Uses of copper
- Making electric cables as it is a good conductor of electricity
- Making water pipes as it does not rust
- Making coins, pots and jewellery
- Mixed with other metals to make alloys such as brass and bronze
Coal mining
Geological occurrence of coal
- Organically formed sedimentary rock (remains of dead plants and animals compacted to
form sedimentary rocks).
- Found in belts or seams
Location: Morupule
Factors which influenced mining of coal at Morupule
- Shallow coal seams/seams close to the surface and in horizontal layers making it easy and
cheap to mine.
- Large quantities of coal.
- Bituminous coal which does not produce a lot of ash.
- Availability of market which include BPC, Morupule power station, BCL, Breweries e.t.c.
- Good road and railway network for easy transportation.
- Water supply from Paje boreholes.
- Power supply from Morupule power station.
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Method of mining coal
- Box cut
Uses of coal
- Generation of thermal power
- Source of fuel in homes
- Used in boilers in schools and hospitals
- Used in production of plastic, tar, drugs e.t.c.
Explain the importance of the mining sector to the economy of a country such as
Botswana
- Creation of employment which improves the standard of living
- Generates tax/government revenue for the development of the country
- Training of people therefore improved skills
- Development of infrastructure which improves service delivery
- Provides raw materials which attract other industries
- Diversifies economy which reduces reliance on one economic sector
- Generates foreign exchange used to buy imports
Describe the impact of mining on the environment
- Mine dumps/waste heaps
- Deforestation
- Gloomy/poor vegetation
- Excavation pits/holes
- Pollution (water, land, air)
- Slime dams
- Soil erosion
- Subsidence
- Infrastructure e.g. power lines, winding gear, roads, railway lines
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Describe the solutions to the environmental problems caused by mining/ways in which
the land may be reclaimed after mining
- Establishment of national parks
- Filling of pits
- Use as water catchment areas
- Use as waste dumping sites
- Reforestation
- Levelling of mine dumps
- Cover slime dams
Describe the reasons why some mines may stop operating/factors which may lead to the
closing down of mines
- Depletion of mineral/low quantities of mineral
- Mineral not accessible/flooding/geological occurrence
- Fall in prices/fluctuation in prices/low prices
- Alternative products
- Political instability
- Lack of technology
- Government policy
Identify and discuss the problems of a mineral-led economy with reference to Botswana
and Zambia
Problems of a mineral led economy
- Depletion of minerals/non renewable
- Decline in mineral demand
- Fluctuation of prices/economy dependent on the market/fall in prices
- Economic recession/fall in economy
- Competition with other countries
- Loss of jobs/retrenchment/decline in living standards
- Competition with synthetic products/mineral substitutes
- Slow development
- Investors may pull out
- Skilled labour lost as trained people migrate
Explain how mining of oil and uranium has affected politics in Southern Africa and Middle
East
- Led to the development of blocks such as OPEC where countries in the same region join for
political and economic benefits, OPEC influences oil prices
- Forced policy makers to vigilant, thus make laws protecting national interests
- Improved ties of governments with others as other countries want the resources
- Led to people clinging to power for corruption and resource control/misappropriation of
funds for development as minerals are used as campaign strategies
- Interference by foreign powers e.g. USA in Iraq
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- Abuse of power
- War
- Destruction of property
- Political instability
- Refugees