KIHARU TECHNICAL

COLLEGE MURANG’A

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING AND

INFORMATICS

MODULE I
COMPUTATIONAL MATHEMATICS

1
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Is a set of values used to represent different quantities. For example, a number system can
be used to represent the number of students in a class or number of viewers watching a
certain TV program etc. The digital computer represents all kinds of data and information
in binary numbers. It includes audio, graphics, video, text and numbers. The total number
of digits used in a number system is called its base or radix.

Examples of number system include:

• Decimal number system

• Binary number system
• Octal number system
• Hexadecimal number system

The decimal number system is used in general. However, the computers use binary number
system. The octal and hexadecimal number systems are used in the computer.

Decimal number System

-The Decimal Number System consists of ten digits from 0 to 9.
-These digits can be used to represent any numeric value.
-The base of decimal number system is 10.
-It is the most widely used number system.
-The value represented by individual digit depends on weight and position of the digit.
-Each digit has a position value determined by how many places to the right or left of the
decimal point the digit is written
-Position value are in increasing powers of the base as we move left and decreasing power
of the base as we move to right.

104 103 102 101 . 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 Power base
4 3 2 1 . 1 2 3 4 position
1 1 1 1 value
1000 100 10 1 . 10 100 1000 10000

The value of each digit in a number depends upon

➢ The face value of the digit
➢ The base of the system
➢ The position of the digit in the number

2
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Binary Number System
-Digital computer represents all kinds of data and information in the binary system.
-Binary Number System consists of two digits 0 and 1.
-Its base is 2.
-Each digit or bit in binary number system can be 0 or 1.
-A combination of binary numbers may be used to represent different quantities like 1001.
-The positional value of each digit in binary number is twice the place value or face value
of the digit of its right side.
-The weight of each position is a power of 2.
-Computer handles data by electrical components like transistors, semi-conductors,
integrated circuits or wires which exist in two states.
-A transistor may be conducting or not.
-Magnetic material may be magnetized in one direction or the other.
-A wire may or may not be carrying a current.
-Computer understands only one language consisting of two symbols, 0’s and 1’s, what we
call binary language.
-The most common way to represent data is by the use of numerals 0 to 9 and alphabets A
to Z along with other symbols like +, -, ×, etc.
-Computer is unable to understand the supplied data represented by the symbols.
-The data needs to be changed to computer language for the computer to understand it
-Also, data processed by the computer must be decoded in the form understandable by the
user.

Converted
CPU
to
Human Input works on
computer
message the data
language

Decoded
to human
language

Human
readable
data

3
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Octal Number System
-Octal Number System consists of eight digits from 0 to 7.
-The base of octal system is 8.
-Each digit position in this system represents a power of 8.
-Any digit in this system is always less than 8.
-Octal number system is used as a shorthand representation of long binary numbers.
-The number 6418 is not valid in this number system as 8 is not a valid digit.
-Base 8 is a convenient shorthand for base 2 numbers because 8 is a power of 2:23 = 8.
-One Octal digit is the equivalent of exactly three binary digits.
-The use of Octal (or Hexadecimal) as a shorthand for binary is common in printed output
of main storage and, in some cases in programming.
-Complex binary numbers with several 1’s and 0’s can be conveniently handled in base 8.
-The binary digits are grouped into binary digits of 3 from your right hand side and each
group is used to represent an individual octal digit.

E.g. the binary number 100011100112 can be handled as 21638

010 001 110 011

2 1 6 3

Hexadecimal number system

-The Hexadecimal Number System consists of 16 digits from 0 to 9 and A to F.
-The alphabets A to F represent decimal numbers from 10 to 15.
-So the base 16 numbers are: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A, B, C, D, E and F.
-The base of this number system is 16.
-Each digit position in hexadecimal system represents a power of 16.
-The number 76416 is valid hexadecimal number. It is different from 76410 which are seven
hundred and sixty four.
-This number system provides shortcut method to represent long binary numbers.
-Hexadecimal numbers are used to because more complex binary notations can be
simplified by grouping the binary digit/bits into groups of 4 from your right hand side each
group representing a hexadecimal digit.

E.g. the binary number 10010101000002 can be handled as 12A016.

1 0010 1010 0000

1 2 A 0

4
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Types of data
➢ Numeric data
➢ Alphabetic data
➢ Alphanumeric data

Conversion between number bases

Data passed to go as computer are usually in decimal notation
Also the output is communicated to the users in the form they can understand.

Conversion from decimal to binary

The number in base 10 is repeatedly divided by 2, until the dividend is zero.
In each division the remainder is noted and copied bottom up wise to give the binary
equivalent of the decimal number.

E.g. Convert 12110 to binary

Solution

1111001

Hence 12110 = 11110012

For fraction numbers, the number is divided into two parts, the whole number part and the
fraction part.
The whole number part is converted as shown above.
The fraction part is repeatedly multiplied by 2, noting the complete units of two. The
process proceeds until the fraction becomes a zero or starts recurring.

5
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Examples:

Convert the decimal number 163.75 and 202.9 into binary

10100011.11

11001010.11100

6
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 Conversion from binary to decimal
The number in binary is assigned weighted factors (place values) for each digit, and
then partial products i.e. the product of each digit and its corresponding weight, is
got.

These partial products are then summed up to give a decimal number equivalent of
the binary number.

Example: convert the binary number 11110012 to decimal number

26 25 24 23 22 21 20

1 1 1 1 0 0 1

64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1

12110

For fraction numbers, the whole number is converted to decimal as above.

For the fraction part, digits are divided by multiples of two starting from the binary
point

Example 1: convert 11010.012 to decimal number

24 23 22 21 20 . 2-1 2-2

1 1 0 1 0 . 0 1

1
16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 0 +
4

26.2510

Example 2: convert 11100010.11012

27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 . 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4

1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 . 1 1 0 1

128 + 64 + 32 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 1
2 4 16

226 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.0625

226.812510

7
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Conversion from decimal to octal
You repeatedly divide the decimal number by 8.

E.g. convert decimal 69110 to octal

Solution

12638

For fraction numbers, the number is divided into two parts, the whole part and the
fraction part.

The whole part is then converted to binary individually as above.

The fraction part is repeatedly multiplied by 8 noting the complete units of 8

Example 1: convert 98.12510 to octal

Solutions

142.18

8
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 Example 2: convert 202.9 to octal

Solutions

312.714638

Conversion from octal to decimal

Procedure is the same as binary to decimal, but the weights are assigned in terms of
8’s

Example: convert 12638 to decimal

Solutions

83 82 81 80

1 2 6 3

512 + 128 + 48 + 3

69110

For fraction number, conversion is the same as converting fraction binary number to
decimal, but the division is by multiples of 8.

9
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Example: convert 243.648 to decimal number

Solutions

82 81 80 . 8-1 8-2

2 4 3 . 6 4
6 4
128 + 32 + 3 + +
8 64

163 + 0.75 + 0.0625

163.812510

Conversion from decimal to hexadecimal

The procedure is the same as from decimal to binary, though divisions are by 16.

Example: convert 12210 to hexadecimal

Solutions

But A = 10

Hence, answer is 7A16

For fraction number, the fraction part is multiplied by 16 noting the complete units of 16’s.

Example: convert 32.12510 to hexadecimal

Solutions

20.216

10
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Conversion from hexadecimal to decimal
The same procedure as from binary to decimal is used with weights assigned in terms of
16’s.

Example: convert 7A16 to decimal number

Solutions

161 160

7 A

112 + 10

12210

For fractional hexadecimal values, the division is by 16’s though the procedure is the same
as the binary fractions to decimal.

Example: convert 20.216 to decimal

Solutions

161 160 . 16-1

2 0 . 2

32 + 0 + 2
16

32 + 0.125

32.12510

Negative numbers
Both negative and positive numbers can be represented in computer memory during
processing

Various methods are used to represent negative numbers

➢ One’s complement (1C) method

➢ Two’s complement (2C) method
➢ Signed magnitude method

11
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
The negative numbers are used to carry out subtraction in the computer’s arithmetic
operations.

This is based on the notation that subtracting a number is same as adding its negative to the
number.

One’s complement (1C) method

In this method, the binary bits representing the negative number are negated. I.e. the 1’s in
the number are changed to 0’s and 0’s to 1’s.

For example; -1710 can be represented in binary as

1710 = 100012

-1710 = 011102

Two’s complement (2C) method

In this method, the negative number is represented into binary, then complemented as in 1C
method but a 1 is added to the least significant digit of the complemented value.

For example; -1710 can be represented as

1710 = 100012

-1710 = 01110
+ 1
01111

Signed magnitude method

In this method the number is divided into two parts, the sign and the data part.

Conventionally, a ‘1’ is used to represent a negative sign and a ‘0’ to represent a positive
sign.

The magnitude part is expressed in binary but not complemented.

The binary digits therefore will be having part of them representing the data while the
others the sign bit

The sign only takes one bit

12
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
For example;

1710 = 100012

-1710 = 1 100012
(Sign bit) (Data bit)

+1710 = 0 100012
(Sign bit) (Data bit)

Binary Arithmetic

Binary arithmetic precedes much the same manner as the decimal number addition. The only
difference being that any complete units of 2’s are carried to be added to the next significant
digit.

Rules

A + B = sum + carry

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

Example: solve

1.

2.

13
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
The excess/extra bits of the sum that cannot fit the expected space are known as overflow.
Note that during arithmetic operations the data to be worked upon are usually held on work
areas of predefined length or capacity and hence in the above examples, the results cannot
fit in any of the spaces that maintained the values to be added.

Subtraction
Rules

➢ 0‐0=0
➢ 0 ‐ 1 = 1, and borrow 1 from the next more significant bit
➢ 1‐0=1
➢ 1‐1=0
➢ 1011011 − 10010 = 1001001:

Examples

14
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
The subtraction can also be carried out using the complement and signed magnitude.

For example: using one’s complement

Make the number of bits of the values the same

Complement the digits of the negative number and then add

Add the overflow digit to the least significant bit of the sum to get the difference.

If the two’s complement method is used, the procedure looks a bit different but the
difference got is the same

15
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Make the digits of the values the same

Complement the digits of the negative number as in 1C method and add a 1 to the least
significant bit of the complemented value. Add the results obtained to the positive number

Hence

The overflow ignore

= 10 0 1 12

16
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Multiplication
➢ 0x0=0
➢ 0x1=0
➢ 1x0=0
➢ 1 x 1 = 1, and no carry or borrow bits

Examples

Division
Most computers carry out binary divisions by repetitive subtraction

For example

1110 rem 100

17
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Notes
Binary Number System
-System Digits: 0 and 1
-Bit (short for binary digit): A single binary digit
-LSB (least significant bit): The rightmost bit
-MSB (most significant bit): The leftmost bit
-Upper Byte (or nybble): The right‐hand byte (or nybble) of a pair
-Lower Byte (or nybble): The left‐hand byte (or nybble) of a pair

Units of Computer Memory Measurements:

1 Bit = Binary Digit
8 Bits = 1 Byte
1 Nybble (or nibble) = 4 bits
1 Byte = 2 nybbles = 8 bits
1024 Bytes =1KB(KiloByte)
1024KB =1MB (MegaByte)
1024MB =1GB (GigaByte)
1024GB =1TB (TerraByte)
1024TB =1PB (PetaByte)
1024PB =1EB (ExaByte)
1024EB =1ZB (ZettaByte)
1024ZB =1YB (YottaByte)
1024YB =1 (BrontoByte)
1024Brontobyte =1(GeopByte)

Geop Byte is The Highest Memory Measurement Unit!!!

N/b: A byte is the smallest addressable unit of memory.

18
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
In the coding, when numbers, letters or words are represented by a specific group of
symbols, it is said that the number, letter or word is being encoded. The group of symbols
is called as a code. The digital data is represented, stored and transmitted as group of
binary bits. This group is also called as binary code. The binary code is represented by the
number as well as alphanumeric letter.

Binary codes are used to represent all members among a group of quantities differently
such that every element has a distinct code from any other element.

Advantages of Binary Code

Following is the list of advantages that binary code offers.

• Binary codes are suitable for the computer applications.

• Binary codes are suitable for the digital communications.
• Binary codes make the analysis and designing of digital circuits if we use the
binary codes.
• Since only 0 & 1 are being used, implementation becomes easy.

Need for binary codes

Suitable for computers because computer is a digital system that understand only binary
language i.e. language of 1’s and 0’s. Binary is the simplest way to implement operations
and information in a computer.

Classification of binary codes

The codes are broadly categorized into following four categories.

• Weighted Codes
• Non-Weighted Codes
• Sequential codes
• Alphanumeric Codes
• Reflective codes
• Error Detecting Codes
• Error Correcting Codes

19
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Weighted codes: These are binary codes which obey positional weight principal. In
weighted codes, each digit is assigned a specific weight according to its position. For
example, in 8421BCD code, 1001 the weights of 1, 0, 0, 1 (from left to right) are 8, 4, 2 and
1 respectively. Examples: 5211 BCD codes, 8421 BCD codes, 2421 BCD codes

Non-weighted codes: These are binary codes which do not obey positional weight principal.
The non-weighted codes are not positionally weighted. In other words, each digit position
within the number is not assigned a fixed value (or weight). Example: Excess-3 and gray
code

Reflective codes: A code is reflective when the code is self-complementing. In other words,
when the code for 9 is the complement we obtain code for 0, 8 for 1, 7 for 2, 6 for 3 and 5
for 4. Examples: 2421BCD, 5421BCD and Excess-3 code

N/B: 8421 BCD code is not a reflective code because it is not self-complementing.

Sequential codes: In sequential codes, each succeeding 'code is one binary number greater
than its preceding code. This property helps in manipulation of data. Examples: 8421 BCD
and Excess-3 are sequential codes.

Alphanumeric codes: Codes used to represent numbers, alphabetic characters, symbols and
various instructions necessary for conveying intelligible information. Examples: ASCII,
EBCDIC, UNICODE are the most-commonly used alphanumeric codes.

Error detection codes: Codes which detect presence of errors in data transmission.
Example: parity codes. N/B: there are other codes which can detect and correct errors. They
are known as error detection and correction codes. Example is hamming codes.

Binary codes

Weighted Non-weighted Reflective Sequential Alphanumeric Error

detecting

8421 Exces-3 Exces-3 8421 ASCII Parity

2421 5211 EBCDIC
5211 Gray 2421 Exces-3 UNICODE

20
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Excess-3 code

The Excess-3 code is also called as XS-3 code. It is non-weighted code used to express
decimal numbers. The Excess-3 code words are derived from the 8421 BCD code words
adding (0011)2 or (3)10 to each code word in 8421. The excess-3 codes are obtained as
follows.

It is particularly significant for arithmetic operations as it overcomes the shortcomings

encountered while using the 8421 BCD code to add two decimal digits whose sum exceeds
9. This code is used in some old computers.

Example

21
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Gray Code

It is the non-weighted code and it is not arithmetic codes. That means there are no specific
weights assigned to the bit position. It has a very special feature that has only one bit will
change, each time the decimal number is incremented as shown in fig. As only one bit
changes at a time, the gray code is called as a unit distance code. The gray code is a cyclic
code. The gray code is a cyclic code. Gray code cannot be used for arithmetic operation.

Conversion from binary to gray code

Steps:

➢ Place a leading zero before the most significant bit (MSB)

➢ Compare the adjacent bit starting from the leading zero
➢ If the two compared bits are the same => 0, if not =>1

22
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
For example:

Conversion from gray code to binary

Steps:

➢ Drop the most significant bit (MSB)

➢ Compare this to the next adjacent bit
➢ If the two compared bits are the same => 0, if not =>1

For example

Application of Gray code

• Gray code is popularly used in the shaft position encoders.

• A shaft position encoder produces a code word which represents the angular
position of the shaft.

23
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Representation of BCD numbers
Short form for Binary Coded Decimal. The binary coded decimal (BCD) is a type of
binary code used to represent a given decimal number in an equivalent binary form. Its
main advantage is that it allows easy conversion to decimal digits for printing or display
and faster calculations. BCD is also known as packet decimal and is numbers 0 through 9
converted to four-digit binary. Below is a list of the decimal numbers 0 through 9 and the
binary conversion.

Decimal BCD
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001

Using this conversion, the number 25, for example, would have a BCD number of 0010
0101. However, in binary, 25 is represented as 11001.

Each digit requires 4 bits and only ten of the values 0 – 9 are used.

Unpacked BCD

Contains only one decimal digit per byte. The digit is stored in the least significant 4 bits.

Packed BCD

Packs two decimal digits into a single byte.

Invalid BCD

They are binary numbers which are not allowed in the BCD code. Includes; 1010, 1011,
1100, 1101, 1110, 1111(i.e. between 10 - 15)

24
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
BCD arithmetic

Addition

BCD addition follows the same rules as binary addition. However, if the addition produces
a carry and/or creates an invalid BCD number, an adjustment is required to correct the sum.
The correction method is to add 6 to the sum in any digit position that has caused an error.

Example

24 + 13 = 37

15 + 9 = 24

19 + 28 = 47

25
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
786 + 456 = 1242

NB: Add a 6(0110) to any code which when added exceeds 9(1001)

Subtraction

BCD subtraction follows the same rules as binary subtraction. However, if the subtraction
causes a borrow and/or creates an invalid BCD number, an adjustment is required to correct
the answer. The correction method is to subtract 6 from the difference in any digit position
that has caused an error.

Example

37 - 12 = 25

65 - 19 = 46

26
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
41 - 18 = 23

Using 9’s complement

The decimal equivalent of the given binary coded decimal codes are found out. Then the
9’s complement of the subtrahend is done and then the result is added to the number from
which the subtraction is to be done. If there is any carry bit, then the carry bit is added to
the result of the subtraction.

Example

0101 0001 – 0010 0001

51 – 21

9’s complement of 21 => 99 – 21 = 78

51 + 78 = 129

In this 1 is a carry. Therefore, 29 + 1 = 30, this is final answer.

The decimal result is then changed to BCD code to get the result

30 => 0011 0000

Using 10’s complement

BCD subtraction using 10’s complement is the same as in case of 9’s complement, the
only difference is that instead of 9’s complement, we have to do 10’s complement of the
subtrahend. In 10’s complement, the carry is ignored.

Example

0101 0001 – 0010 0001

51 – 21

27
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
To get 10’s complement, we get the 9’s complement and add a 1.

So, 9’s complement of 21 => 99 – 21 = 78 + 1 = 79

51 + 79 = 130

Ignore the overflow. Hence the answer is 30

BCD Multiplication
Multiply the two BCD numbers using the rules for binary multiplication. To adjust the
product divide it by decimal 10, then place the quotient in the most significant byte and the
remainder in the least significant byte (convert the binary answer to unpacked BCD).

Example

1001 × 0100 = 0011 0110

BCD Division
Before dividing a BCD number, the division adjustment is made by converting the BCD
numbers to binary. Adjust the two-byte BCD number by multiplying the upper byte by
decimal 10 and adding the product to the lower byte. After the adjustment, divide the two
binary numbers using the rules of binary arithmetic. Finally, convert the binary quotient
into a BCD number if necessary.

28
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Example

0010 1000 ÷ 0111 = 0100 (28 ÷ 7 = 4)

Exercise

0101 0010 ÷0100

Alphanumeric codes
Alphanumeric codes are sometimes called character codes due to their certain properties.
Now these codes are basically binary codes. We can write alphanumeric data, including
data, letters of the alphabet, numbers, mathematical symbols and punctuation marks by this
code which can be easily understandable and can be processed by the computers. Input
output devices such as keyboards, monitors and mouse can be interfaced using these codes.
12-bit Hollerith code is the better known and perhaps the first effective code in the days of
evolving computers in early days. During this period punch cards were used as the
inputting and outputting data. But nowadays these codes are termed obsolete as many other
modern codes have evolved. The most common alphanumeric codes used these days are
ASCII code, EBCDIC code and Unicode.

Earlier computers were used only for the purpose of calculations i.e. they were only used
as a calculating device. But now computers are not just used for numeric representations,
they are also used to represent information such as names, addresses, item descriptions etc.
Such information is represented using letters and symbols. Computer is a digital system
and can only deal with l's and 0’s. So to deal with letters and symbols they use
alphanumeric codes.

29
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 i. ASCII code
The full form of ASCII code is American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
It is a seven bit code based on the English alphabet.
In 1967 this code was first published and since then it is being modified and updated.
ASCII code has 128 characters since it has 7 bits. These includes 95 printable characters
including 26 upper and 26 lower case letters, 10 numerals and 33 special characters such as
mathematical symbols etc. It also defines 33 non printable characters. They matched each
symbol with decimal position and each position was converted to binary to get their ASCII
code.
E.g. positions 48 – 57 was taken by decimal 0 – 9
Positions 65 – 90 was taken by upper case A – Z
Positions 97 – 122 was taken by lower case a – z
So if you want to get the ASCII code for 0, convert 48 to binary => 0110000 and ASCII
code for A, convert 65 to binary => 1000001

ii. EBCDIC code

The EBCDIC stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.
IBM invented this code to extend the Binary Coded Decimal which existed at that time.
All the IBM computers and peripherals use this code.
It is an 8 bit code and therefore can accommodate 256 characters.
Divided into two parts, the first 4 bits are called the zone and represent the category of the
character, whereas the last 4 bits are called the digit and identify the specific character.

iii. UNICODE

Unicode is the newest concept in digital coding. In Unicode every number has a unique
character. Leading technological giants have adopted this code for its uniqueness. A part of
the Unicode table is given below.

Error detection
Error means a condition when output information is not same as input information. When
transmission of digital signals takes place between two systems such as a computer, the
transmitted signal is combined with the "Noise". The noise can introduce an error in the
binary bits travelling from one system to other. That means 0 may change to 1 or a 1 may
change to 0.

Whenever a message is transmitted then there are changes that it gets scrambled by noise
or data gets corrupted. When we add some additional data to a given digital message which
can help us to detect if an error occurred during transmission of the message then adding
such data is called an error-detecting code. A simple example of error-detecting code is
parity check.

30
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Parity checking is a simple technique for detecting errors. In the MSB of an 8-bits word is
used as the parity bit and the remaining 7 bits are used as data or message bits. The parity
of 8-bits transmitted word can be either even parity or odd parity.

Even parity -- Even parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity
bit should be even (2,4,6, ).

Odd parity -- Odd parity means the number of 1's in the given word including the parity
bit should be odd (1,3,5, ... ).

Use of Parity Bit

• The parity bit can be set to 0 and 1 depending on the type of the parity required.
• For even parity this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word
is even. Show in the fig. (a).
• For odd parity this bit is set to 1 or 0 such that the no. of "1 bits" in the entire word
is odd. Show in the fig. (b).

31
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Parity bit –is an extra bit added to a data bits to make the number of ones in
the data even or odd.

How error detection work

The parity checking at the receiver can detect the presence of an error if the parity of the
receiver signal is different from the expect parity. That means if is known that the parity of
the transmitted signal is always going to be "even" and if the received signal has an odd
parity then the receiver can conclude that the received signal is not correct. If presence of
error is detected then the receiver will ignore the received byte and request for
retransmission of the same byte to the transmitter.

Disadvantages

➢ Parity only detects an odd number of errors

➢ Parity cannot be used to detect which bit is in error.

NB: parity bit is only suitable for detecting errors. It cannot correct any errors as there is
no way to determine which particular bit is corrupted. Data must be discarded entirely and
re-transmitted again from scratch.

32
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
A logic gate is an electronic circuit that accepts one or more than one inputs and gives out
only one output. Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. The
relationship between the input and the output is based on certain logic.

There are 4 standard gates:

➢ AND gate
➢ OR gate
➢ NOT gate

AND Gate
We can mimic the AND gate using the series connection

The bulb only lights when the two switches are on. The bulb will not light when any of the
switches is off.

The operation of AND gate is such that its output is a logic 1 only if all its output are logic
1. Otherwise the output is logic 0.

33
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
AND gate may have as many inputs as the gate may require. Regardless of the number of
inputs, all the inputs must be logic 1 for the gate to output logic 1. It has n input (n >= 2)
and one output.

Symbol

Truth table

input output
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Application

Device enable or disable switch e.g. stop-watch.

OR Gate
We can mimic the OR gate using the
parallel connection

The bulb lights if any of the switches is closed. The bulb does not light only when all the
switches are off.

34
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
OR gate outputs logic 1 if any of its output is logic 1. It only outputs logic 0 if all of its
inputs are logic 0.

May have as many inputs as the gate may require but regardless of the number of inputs, if
any of the input is logic 1, the gate outputs logic 1.

Symbol

Truth table

input Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Application

Car door alarm system. When all the doors are closed, 0000 is applied to the input of the
gate. When one or more gates are open, the output of OR gate is 1, which activates the
alarm.

NOT Gate

Also called inverter.

Has a single input. It changes logic 0 input to logic 1 output and logic 1 input to logic 0
output. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Symbol

35
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Truth table

input Output
0 1
1 0

Application

Calculating 1’s complement.

NOT gate is combined with AND gate and OR gate to come up with two other gates

➢ NAND gate
➢ NOR gate

NAND Gate

A NOT-AND operation is known as NAND operation. The NOT gate negates the output
from the AND gate. Hence NAND gate outputs a 1 if any input is a zero. It has n input (n
>= 2) and one output.

Symbol

36
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Truth table

Input output
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Application

Device failure alarm system. E.g. fans. When all the fans are working, the input to the
NAND gate is 111 and the output is zero. If any of the fans stops working, the output of
the NAND gate becomes 1, which activates the alarm.

NOR Gate

A NOT-OR operation is known as NOR operation. The NOT gate negates the output from
the NOR gate. Hence NOR gate outputs a 0 if any input is a 1. It has n input (n >= 2) and
one output.

Symbol

Truth table

Input output
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

37
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Application

Washing machine controller.

Other types of gates are

➢ Exclusive- OR gate
➢ Exclusive-NOR gate

XOR Gate

XOR or Ex-OR gate is a special type of gate. The exclusive-OR gate is abbreviated as EX-
OR gate or sometime as X-OR gate. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

XOR gate is sometimes called a parity checker. Parity checkers count the number of ones
and being input and to a circuit and output logic 1 or 0 based on whether the number of
ones is odd or even.

The XOR gate count the number of 1’s at its input and outputs a logic 1 for an odd count
and logic 0 for an even count.

Symbol

Truth

input output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

38
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
XNOR Gate

XNOR gate is a special type of gate. The exclusive-NOR gate is abbreviated as EX-NOR
gate or sometime as X-NOR gate. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

XNOR gate is also sometimes called a parity checker. Parity checkers count the number of
ones and being input and to a circuit and output logic 1 or 0 based on whether the number
of ones is odd or even.

The XNOR gate count the number of 1’s at its input and outputs a logic 1 for an even
count and logic 0 for an odd count.

Symbol

Truth

input output
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

39
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 Type of gate Notations
AND gate A.B

OR gate A+B

NOT gate

NAND gate

NOR gate

XOR gate

XNOR gate

Combinational Circuits
Combinational circuit is circuit in which we combine the different gates in the circuit.
Some of the characteristics of combinational circuits are following.

Exercise

Draw the following circuit diagram

(A + B).(A + C)

40
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Boolean Algebra
Boolean Algebra is used to analyze and simplify the digital (logic) circuits. It uses only the
binary numbers i.e. 0 and 1. It is also called as Binary Algebra or logical Algebra.
Boolean algebra was invented by George Boole in 1854.

Rule in Boolean algebra

Following are the important rules used in Boolean algebra.

• Variable used can have only two values. Binary 1 for HIGH and Binary 0 for
LOW.
• Complement of a variable is represented by an over bar (-). Thus complement of
variable B is represented as . Thus if B = 0 then = 1 and B = 1 then = 0.
• ORing of the variables is represented by a plus (+) sign between them. For example
ORing of A, B, C is represented as A + B + C.
• Logical ANDing of the two or more variable is represented by writing a dot
between them such as A.B.C. Sometime the dot may be omitted like ABC.

Boolean Laws
Addition multiplication

0+0=0 0.0=0

1+0=1 1.0=0

0+1=1 0.1=0

1+1=1 1.1=1

There are six types of Boolean Laws.

Commutative law

Any binary operation which satisfies the following expression is referred to as

commutative operation

Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the variables does not have any
effect on the output of a logic circuit.

41
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Associative law

This law states that the order in which the logic operations are performed is irrelevant as
their effect is the same.

Distributive law

Distributive law states the following condition.

A + (B.C) = (A+B).(A+C)

AND law

These laws use the AND operation. Therefore they are called as AND laws.

OR law

These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called as OR laws.

INVERSION law

This law uses the NOT operation. The inversion law states that double inversion of a
variable result in the original variable itself.

De-Morgan’s theorem

Exercise: Simplify

42
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 43
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Algebra is a branch of mathematics that uses letters and other symbols instead of numbers.

E.g. x + y = z

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

Quadratic equations are equations of the form

ax2+ bx +c = 0

where a, b and c are constants and x is the variable and a = 0.

Methods of solving quadratic equations

❖ Factorization
❖ Completing square method
❖ Quadratic formula
❖ Graphical method

Factorization method

Quadratic equations are of the form ax2+ bx +c = 0. To solve using factorization method;

• Get the product of a.c

• Get the sum b
• Find two numbers which when you multiply you get product a.c and when you add
them you get sum b

Example

Solve using factorization method 2x2 + 7x – 15 = 0

44
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Solution

product p = -30 and the sum b = 7

the two numbers are 10 and -3

hence 2x2 + 7x – 15 = 0 becomes 2x2 +10x - 3x – 15 = 0

= 2x(x + 5) – 3(x + 5) = 0

= (2x - 3)(x + 5) = 0

= 2x – 3 = 0 or x + 5 = 0

= 2x = 3 or x = -5

=x=3 or x = -5
2

Exercise

Solve by factorization

1. 6x2 – 13x + 6 = 0
2. x2 – 8x – 20 = 0
3. 35x2 – x – 12 = 0
4. 2x2 – 5x + 3 = 0

Completing square method

It is called this because it uses a process called completing the square in the solution
process. So, we should first define just what completing the square is.

Let’s start with

x2 + bx

N/B: x2 should have a coefficient of one. That is required in order to do this.

Now, to this lets add ( 𝑏 )2. Doing this gives the following factorable quadratic equation.
2

45
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
This process is called completing the square and if we do all the arithmetic correctly we
can guarantee that the quadratic will factor as a perfect square.

This method is used when it is not easy to factorize quadratic equations.

Example

Solve 5x2 – 6x – 2 = 0

Solutions

Divide through by 5 to get

x2 - 6 x - 2 = 0
5 5

x2 - 6 x = 2
5 5

6 1 2 6 1 2
x2 - 6 x + (− × ) = 2 + (− × )
5 5 2 5 5 2

36
(x- 6 )2 = 2
+
10 5 100

36 19
( x - 3 )2 = 2
+ =
5 5 100 25

( x - 3 )2 = 19
5 25

19
x-3 =± √
5 25

3 19
x = ± √
5 25

x = 3 ± √19
5

3 + √19 3− √19
x= or x =
5 5

46
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Exercise

Solve by complete square method

➢ 2x2 – 6x -1 = 0
➢ x2 + 7x – 3 = 0
➢ -7 + 12x – 3x2 = 0

Quadratic formula

Complete square method can be generalized to the quadratic formula.

Consider the equation ax2 + bx + c =0

= x2 + 𝑏 x = - 𝑐
𝑎 𝑎

Complete the square

x2 + 𝑏 x + ( 𝑏 )2 = - 𝑐 + ( 𝑏 )2
𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎

(x+ 𝑏 )2 = - 𝑐 + 𝑏2
2𝑎 𝑎 4𝑎2

𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏2
(x+ )2 =
2𝑎 4𝑎2

−4𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏2
𝑏 = ±√
x + 2𝑎 4𝑎2

−4𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏2
x =- 𝑏 ±√
2𝑎 4𝑎2

− 𝑏 ± √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x =
2𝑎

Example

Solve the equation using quadratic formula

3x2 – 7x – 1 = 0

47
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 Solutions

− 𝑏 ± √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
x =
2𝑎

a = 3, b = -7, c = -1

− (−7) ± √(−7)2 −(4×3×−1)

x =
2×3

7 ± √49+12
x =
6

7 ± √61
x =
6

7 + √61 7− √61
x = or x =
6 6

Exercise

Solve using quadratic formula

5x2 + 3x – 7 = 0

4 + 13y + y2

Graphical method

Steps

➢ Using a suitable scale to draw the x and y planes

➢ Check the turning point by equating the 𝛛𝑦 = 0
𝛛𝑥
➢ Locate the x-intercepts; the points where curve cuts the x-axis. Those are the
solutions of the quadratic equation.

Example

Using graphical method, solve

x2 – 3x + 2 = 0

in the interval -2 ≤ x ≤ 3

48
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
solution

x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 12 6 2 0 0 2 6 12

14

12

10

0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6
-2

Solution x = 1 or x = 2

Exercise:

Using graphical method, solve

1. x2 – 6x + 6 = 0
2. 4x2 – 25x + 28 = 0

MATRIX

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols or expressions arranged in rows and

columns.

Some definitions:

Row matrix (Row vector)

This is a matrix with only one row.

49
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Column matrix (column vector)

This is a matrix with only one column.

Rectangular matrix

A matrix who’s the number of rows is not equal to the number of columns.

Square matrix

A matrix who’s the number of rows is equal to the number of columns.

Singular matrix

This is a matrix that does not have a matrix inverse.

In singular matrix the determinant is 0(zero).

2 1
E.g. ( ) => determinant = (2×1)-(2×1) = 0
2 1

Non- singular matrix

This is a matrix that has a matrix inverse. I.e. its determinant is not 0(zero).

Null matrix

Also called zero matrix.

Is a matrix with all its entries zero.

Identity matrix

Also called unit matrix.

Is a square matrix with ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere.

Denoted by In or I.

1 0 0
Example: 3 by 3 identity matrix 0 1 0
0 0 1

50
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Matrix operations

Addition

Is done entry wise.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥 𝑎+𝑤 𝑏+𝑥
+ 𝑦 =
𝑐 𝑑 𝑧 𝑐+𝑦 𝑑+𝑧

Example:

−2 6 3 7 1 13
3 −5 + −4 3 = −1 −2
4 −8 0 2 4 −6

Subtraction

Is also done entry wise.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑤 𝑥 𝑎−𝑤 𝑏−𝑥
- =
𝑐 𝑑 𝑦 𝑧 𝑐−𝑦 𝑑−𝑧

3 −4 −1 7 4 −11
Example: 0 7 - 4 −2 = −4 9
−4 1 0 2 −4 −1

N/B: To add and subtract a matrix, they must be of the same size.

Multiplication:

There are two types of multiplication for matrices:

• scalar multiplication
• matrix multiplication.

51
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Scalar multiplication
Scalar multiplication is easy. You just take a regular number (called a "scalar") and
multiply it on every entry in the matrix.

-let x be a scalar and matrix A = 𝑎 𝑏 , then xA = x 𝑎 𝑏

= 𝑥𝑎 𝑥𝑏
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑 𝑥𝑐 𝑥𝑑
For the following matrix A, find 2A

A= 1 2
3 4

To do the first scalar multiplication to find 2A, I just multiply a 2 on every entry in the matrix:

1 2 2.1 2.2 = 2
2A = 2. 4
=
3 4 2.3 2.4 6 8

Matrix multiplication

When we do matrix multiplication:

• The number of columns of the 1st matrix must equal the number of rows of the
2nd matrix.
• And the result will have the same number of rows as the 1st matrix, and the same
number of columns as the 2nd matrix.

N/B: before you multiply matrices, make sure they are compatible i.e. the number of
elements in the row of the first matrix must be equal to the number of elements in the
column in the second matrix.

Example:

1 0 −2 0 3
A = , B = −2 −1
0 3 −1
0 4
0 3
1 0 −2
Then AB = −2 −1 =
0 3 −1
0 4

52
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 (1.0) + (0. −2) + (−2.0) (1.3) + (0. −1) + (−2.4)
[ ]
(0.0) + (3. −2) + (−1.0) (0.3) + (3. −1) + (−1.4)

0+0+0 3+0−8
= [ ]
0−6+0 0−3−4

= [0 −5]
−6 −7

Calculating the determinant of a matrix

• 2 by 2 matrix
𝑤 𝑥
Given matrix A = [ 𝑦 𝑧] , then its determinant is obtained as follows;

Det = wz – xy

1 −2] , then det = (1×-7) - (-2×6) = -7 - -12 = -7+12 = 5.

Example. A = [
6 −7

• 3 by 3 matrix

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Given matrix A = 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 , then determinant is obtained as follows;
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖

𝑒 𝑓 𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑒
Det = a| | + b| | + c| |
ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ

= a(ei - fh) + b (di - fg) + c (dh - eg)

3 0 2
Example. A = 2 0 −2
0 1 1

Then det = 3| 0 −2 | + 0| 2 −2 | + 2|2 0 |

1 1 0 1 0 1

= 3(0--2) + 0(2-0) + 2(2-0)

= 6 + 0 + 4 = 10

10

53
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Determining the inverse of a matrix

• 2 by 2 matrix

Steps:

➢ Find the determinant

➢ Interchange the positions of the elements in the major diagonal and change the sign
of elements in the minor diagonal.
➢ Finally take 1 times the matrix obtained above.
𝑑𝑒𝑡

3 2
Example: find the inverse of the matrix A = [ ]
−1 −2

Det A = (3.-2) - (-1.2) = -6 – -2 = -6 + 2 = -4

1 1
1 −2 −2 1 −2 −2 2 2
= [ ]=- [ ] = [ ]
𝑑𝑒𝑡 1 3 4 1 3 1 3
− −
4 4

• 3 by 3 matrix

Two methods of calculating inverse of 3 by 3 matrix

➢ Co-factor method
➢ Row reduction method

Co-factor method

Steps:

➢ Calculate the determinant

➢ Calculate the matrix of minors
➢ Turn that matrix of minors to matrix of co-factor
➢ Then adjugate (Transpose)
➢ Multiply the adjugate by 1
𝑑𝑒𝑡

Example: calculate the inverse matrix of

54
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 3 0 2
A= 2 0 −2
0 1 1

Step 1: calculating the determinant

3 0 2
2 0 −2
0 1 1
0 −2 2 −2 2 0
Then det = 3| | + 0| | + 2| |
1 1 0 1 0 1

= 3(0--2) + 0(2-0) + 2(2-0)

= 6 + 0 + 4 = 10

10

Step 2: calculating the matrix of minors

For each element of the matrix,

a. Ignore the value on the current row and column

b. Calculate the determinant of the remaining values

Put those determinants into matrix (the matrix of minors)

3 0 2
2 0 −2
0 1 1

0 −2
= | |
1 1

2 −2
= | |
0 1

55
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 2 0
= | |
0 1

0 2
= | |
1 1

3 2
= | |
0 1

3 0
= | |
0 1

0 2
= | |
0 −2

3 2
= | |
2 −2

56
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 3 0
= | |
2 0

|0 −2 2 −2 2 0
| | | | |
1 1 0 1 0 1
0 2 3 2 3 0
| | | | | |
1 1 0 1 0 1
|0 2 | |3 2 | |3 0
|
0 −2 2 −2 2 0

(0 − −2) (2 − 0) (2 − 0)
= (0 − 2) (3 − 0) (3 − 0)
(0 − 0) (−6 − 4) (0 − 0)

2 2 2
= −2 3 3
0 −10 0

Step 3: Change the matrix of minors to matrix of co-factors

We need to change the sign of alternate cells, like this:

2 2 2 + − + 2 −2 2
−2 3 3 − + − = 2 3 −3
0 −10 0 + − + 0 10 0

Matrix of minors matrix of co-factors

57
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Step 4: Adjugate(Transpose)

Now transpose the matrix of co-factors. (Transposing means changing the rows to columns
and columns to rows)

2 −2 2 2 2 0
2 3 −3 = −2 3 10
0 10 0 2 −3 0

Step 5: Multiply the adjugate by 1

𝑑𝑒𝑡

2 2 0
1
A-1 = −2 3 10
10
2 −3 0

1 1
0
5 5 0.2 0.2 0
1 3
= − 1 or −0.2 0.3 1
5 10
1 3 0.2 −0.3 0
− 0
5 10

Row reduction method(Gauss-Jordan Elimination)

An n×n square matrix A is called invertible if there exist matrix X such that;

AX = XA = I (identity)

Where I is the n×n identity matrix

If that matrix exist, it is unique. We call it the inverse of A and denoted by A-1 = X, so that;

A.A-1 = A-1.A = I

58
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
There are 3 kinds of row operations

➢ Swapping

1 2 3 1 2 3
Eg. 4 5 6 R2 R3 7 8 9
7 8 9 4 5 6

➢ Multiplying or dividing a row by a non-zero number

1 2 3 1 2 3
Eg. 4 5 6 R2π 4𝜋 5𝜋 6𝜋
7 8 9 7 8 9

➢ Adding a multiple of a row to another row

1 2 3 1 2 3
Eg. 4 5 6 R2 = R2 – 4R1 0 −3 −6
7 8 9 7 8 9

Row reduction is a process of using row operations to reduce a matrix to a row reduced
Echelon form.

A matrix is in reduced echelon form if it satisfies the following conditions;

❖ The first non-zero element (leading coefficient), if any in each row, must be 1.
❖ Each leading coefficient is the only non-zero element in its column.
❖ All the zero rows if any are at the bottom of the matrix
❖ The leading coefficient forms a stair-step pattern from northwest to the southeast.

N/B: All the identity matrices are in reduced echelon form.

59
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Examples:

State whether the following matrices are in reduced echelon form

1 0 0
0 5 0 No because the leading coefficient in second row is not 1.
0 0 1

1 0 0
0 1 6 No because 1 is not the only non-zero element in that row 3
0 0 1

Using row reduction, find the inverse matrix

1 1 −1
1. 2 −1 1
1 1 2

1 −1 2
2. −3 3 −1
2 −1 0

Using matrices to solve simultaneous equations

There are 3 methods

➢ Cramer’s rule
➢ Inverse method
➢ Row reduction method (Gaussian elimination)

60
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Cramer’s Rule

Is a method for solving linear simultaneous equations. It makes use of determinants

Two equations

a1x + b1y = d1

a2x + b2y = d2

Then x, y can be formed from

𝐷𝑥 𝐷𝑦
x= and y =
𝐷 𝐷

Example

Solve the equation

3x + 4y = -14

-2x – 3y = 11

61
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Solution

𝐷𝑥 −2
x= = = 2
𝐷 −1

𝐷𝑦 5
y= = -5
𝐷 −1

therefore, x = 2, y = -5

Three equations

a1x + b1y + c1z = d1

a2x + b2y + c2z = d2

a3x + b3y + c3z = d3

62
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Then x, y and z can be found from

Therefore

𝐷𝑥 𝐷𝑦
x= , y= , z = 𝐷𝑧
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷

Example

Solve

2x + y + z = 3

x–y–z=0

x + 2y + z = 0

63
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Solution

x = 3 =1 , y = −6 = -2 , z = 9 =3
3 3 3

x = 1, y = -2, z = 3

Exercise

1. Find z
2x + y + z = 1
x – y + 4z = 0
x + 2y – 2z = 3
(ans : z = 2)

64
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 2. Find the values of x, y and z
x + 2y = 0
-x + y + z = 1
x + 2y + 3z = 0
2
(ans: x = − , y = 1 , z = 0)
3 3

3. Find the values of x and y

7x + 3y = 15
-2x + 5y = -16
(ans: x = 3, y = -2)

4. Find the value of y

x + 2y + 3z = 17
3x + 2y + z = 11
x – 5y + z = -5
(ans: y = 2)

Inverse method

Using inverse method,

First write the simultaneous equations in matrix form

E.g.

x + 2y = 4

3x – 5y = 1

1 2 𝑥
=( ( 4
3 −5 ) 𝑦 ) = ( 1)
1 2 𝑥
Writing A= ( ) , X=( ) and B = ( 4)
3 −5 𝑦 1

We have

AX = B

Therefore, AX = B is the matrix form of the simultaneous equations. The unknown is the
matrix X, since A and B are already known.

65
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
A is called the matrix of coefficient.

So to solve, given AX = B, we multiply both sides by inverse of A.

A-1AX = A-1B

But A-1A = I (identity), hence Ix = x because multiplying any matrix by an identity matrix
of the appropriate size leaves the matrix unchanged. So

X = A-1B

Example

x + 2y = 4

3x – 5y =1

Solution
1 2 x
( )( )= (4)
3 −5 y 1
1 2
Inverse matrix of A = ( )
3 −5

 A-1 = 1 −5 −2
( )
1(−5)−(2×3) −3 1

 - 1
(−5 −2)
11 −3 1

X = A-1B = - 1
(−5 −2) (4)
11 −3 1 1
- 1 ( −22 ) = ( 2 )
11 −11 1

X = 2, y = 1

66
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Exercise

Using inverse method, solve

1. 5x + y = 13
3x + 2y = 5
(ans: x = 3, y = -2)

2. 3x + 2y = -2
x + 4y = 6
(ans: x = -2, y = 2)

NB: It is much more tedious to use the inverse matrix to solve a system of 3 equations
although in principle, the method is the same as for two equations.

Gaussian Elimination (Row reduction method)

A method of solving a linear system of equations. This is done by transforming the

system's augmented matrix into row-echelon form by means of row operations. Then the
system is solved by back-substitution.

Example 1:

Use Gaussian elimination to solve the system of linear equations

x + 5y = 7

−2x – 7y = −5.

Solution:

We carry out the elimination procedure on both the system of equations and the
corresponding augmented matrix, simultaneously. In general only one set of reductions is
necessary, and the latter (dealing with matrices only) is preferable because of the
simplified notation.

x + 5y = 7

−2x – 7y = −5
1 5 7
= ( )
−2 −7 −5

67
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Add twice Row 1 to Row 2.

x + 5y = 7

3y = 9
1 5 7
= ( )
0 3 9
Multiply Row 2 by 1/3.

x + 5y = 7

y=3
1 5 7
= ( )
0 1 3
Add −5 times Row 2 to Row 1.

X = −8

y=3

= ( 1 0 −8)
0 1 3
Hence x = -8, y = 3

Example 2:

Use Gaussian elimination to solve the system of linear equations

2y + z = −8

x −2y – 3z = 0

−x + y + 2x3z = 3.

Solution:

As before, we carry out reduction on the system of equations and on the augmented matrix

Simultaneously, in order to make it clear that row operations on equations correspond

exactly to row operations on matrices.

68
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
 2y + z = −8

x – 2y – 3z = 0

−x + y + 2z = 3

0 2 1 −8
=( 1 −2 −3 0)
−1 1 2 3
Swap Row 1 and Row 2.

x – 2y – 3z = 0

2y + z = −8

−x + y + 2z = 3

1 −2 −3 0
=( 0 2 1 −8)
−1 1 2 3

Add Row 1 to Row 3.

x – 2y – 3z = 0

2y + z = −8

−y−z=3
1 −2 −3 0
=( 0 2 1 −8)
0 −1 −1 3
Swap Row 2 and Row 3.

x – 2y – 3z = 0

−y−z=3

2y + z = −8

1 −2 −3 0
=( 0 −1 −1 3)
0 2 1 −8

69
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Add twice Row 2 to Row 3.

x – 2y – 3z = 0

−y−z=3

− z = −2

1 −2 −3 0
=( 0 −1 −1 3)
0 0 −1 −2

Add −1 times Row 3 to Row 2.

Add −3 times Row 3 to Row 1.

x – 2y = 6

−y =5

− z = −2
1 −2 0 6
=( 0 −1 0 5)
0 0 −1 −2

Add −2 times Row 2 to Row 1.

x = −4

−y=5

− z = −2

1 0 0 −4
=( 0 −1 0 5)
0 0 −1 −2

70
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Multiply Rows 2 and 3 by −1.

x = −4

y = −5

z=2
1 0 0 −4
=( 0 1 0 −5)
0 0 1 2

Example 3:

Use Gaussian elimination to solve the system of linear equations

x – 2y – 6z = 12

2x + 4y + 12z = −17

x – 4y – 12z = 22.

Solution:

In this case, we convert the system to its corresponding augmented matrix, perform the

necessary row operations on the matrix alone and then convert back to equations at the end
to identify the solution.

x – 2y – 6z = 12

2x + 4y + 12z = −17

x – 4y – 12z = 22

71
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Add −2 times Row 1 to Row 2.

Add −1 times Row 1 to Row 3.

Swap Row2 and Row 3.

Add 4 times Row 2 to Row 3.

x – 2y6 – 6z = 12
− 2y− 6z = 10
0 = −1

Since the final equation

0=−1

Hence cannot be satisfied, and so this system has no solutions.

Using matrices to solve real life problems

Some of the industrial demand problems includes

➢ Out-put vector of the economy

➢ Message coding
➢ Storage of information

72
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
Out-put vector of the economy

Leontief model

This topic introduces an important application of matrix inversion in modern economic

theory. The Leontief model describes a simplified view of an economy. Its goal is to
predict the proper level of production for each of several types of goods or service. The
proper level of production is the one which meets two requirements:

➢ There should be enough of each good to meet the demand for it.
➢ There should be no "leftovers", i.e., unused goods.

In a real economy there are tens of thousands of different goods and services, but we can
often simplify matters by combining goods into categories. For example, let us consider a
very simple economy that runs on just 3 different types of output: raw materials, services,
and manufacturing. Raw materials include the output of many different industries,
agriculture and mining to name two. Services include retailing, advertising, transportation,
etc.

Now, the raw materials industry needs some of the output from the other two industries to
do its job. For example, it needs trucking to get its goods to market, and it uses some
manufactured goods (machines.) The raw materials industry even needs some of its own
output to produce its own output - iron ore to make the steel to build the rails that carry ore
from the mines, for example.

Similarly, each of the other two industries requires some amount of output from each of
the three to do its job. All of these requirements can be summarized in the form of a table
such as the following:

Industry Raw Materials Services Manufacturing

Raw Materials 0.02 0.04 0.04
Services 0.05 0.03 0.01
Manufacturing 0.2 0.01 0.1

The numbers in the table tell how much output from each industry a given industry
requires in order to produce one dollar of its own output. For example, to provide $1
worth of service, the service sector requires $.05 worth of raw materials, $.03 worth of
services, and $.01 worth of manufactured goods.

The information in the table can be more compactly described by dropping the headings.
The result is a 3x3 matrix called the input-output matrix:

73
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
A second important matrix, the demand matrix, tells how much (in, say, billions of
dollars) of each type of output is demanded by consumers and others outside the economy
("exports".) For example, we might have

For example, the 200 in the second position means that $200 billion worth of services are
demanded by consumers and exporters.

Finally, let X denote the production matrix. It is another column of length 3 that
represents the amounts (in billions of dollars of value) produced by each of the three
industries. We can't fill in the entries of X yet because we don't yet know the levels of
production that will meet the two requirements above. But we can still interpret the
meaning of the matrix product AX: it is also a column of length 3 that represents that part
of the production which is used internally, i.e., by the industries themselves in order to
produce their goods. The difference X - AX = (I - A)X then represents how much of the
output remains to satisfy the external demand. This demand will be exactly met with no
leftover waste provided (I - A)X = D. But we can easily solve this matrix equation for X

thereby obtaining a formula for the required levels of production. In our example we obtain

Thus, the service sector should produce $237.27 billion worth of services, etc, in order for
the economy to "balance".

The overall approach is quite flexible in that small sectors of the economy, even individual
businesses, can be modeled in a similar way - we merely have to regard the rest of the
economy as being part of the "customers and exports" category.

74
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
NB: In the inter-industry matrix, a column entry typically represents inputs to an industrial
sector, while a row entry represents output from a given sector.

Example:

An economy has the two industries R and S. The current consumption is given by the table

consumption
R S External
Industry R production 50 50 20
Industry S production 60 40 100

Assume the new external demand is 100 units of R and 100 units of S. Determine

the new production levels.

Solution:

The total production is 120 units for R and 200 units for S. We obtain
50 50
20 ) ,
X = (120 ) A = (120 200 / 100
, B= ( 60 40 ) , and B = ( )
200 100 100
120 200

The solution is
1
X/ = (I2 - A)-1B/ = (96 30 ) ( 100 ) = ( 307.3 )
41 60 70 100 317.0

The new production levels are 307.3 and 317.0 for R and S, respectively.

Message coding (cryptography)

Cryptography involves encrypting data so that a third party cannot intercept and read the
data.

In the early days of satellite television, the video signals were not encrypted and anyone
with a satellite dish could watch whatever was being shown, so the satellite dish owners
were able to get/receive their satellite feeds for no cost while the cable subscribers had to
pay for the channel. They were losing money.

75
MR HILLARY ……mathematics is a life style……live it…
So, they started encrypting the video signals with a system called video cipher. What the
video cipher encryption system did was to convert the signal into digital form, encrypt it,
and send the data over the satellite. If the satellite dish owner had a video cipher box, and
paid for the channel, then the box would descramble (encrypt) the signal and return it to its
original, useful form.

This was done using a key that was invertible. It was very important that the key be
invertible, or there would be no way to return the encrypted data to its original form

Matrices were used to do this.

Encryption process

1. Convert the text of the message into a stream of numeral values.

2. Place the data into a matrix
3. Multiply the data by the encoding matrix
4. Convert the matrix into a stream of numeral values that contains the encrypted
message

Example

Consider the message “RED RUM”. A message is converted into numerical form according
to some scheme. The easiest scheme is to let space = 0, A = 1, B = 2, C = 3, ................. , Y =
25, Z = 26. For example the message “RED RUM” would become 18, 5, 4, 0, 18, 21, 13.
This data is placed into matrix form. The size of the matrix depends on the size of the
encryption key. Let’s say that our encryption matrix (encoding matrix) is 2 by 2 matrixes.
Then:

18 5
A=(4 0)
18 21
3 0

There is an invertible matrix which is called encryption matrix or the encoding matrix.
let’s call it B
4 −2
B=( )
−1 3

The encrypted data is then multiplied by our encoding matrix. The result of this
multiplication is the matrix containing the encrypted data.

67 −21
AB = (16 −8 )
51 27
52 −26
MR HILLARY………mathematics is a life style……live it…
76
The message that would be passed on to the other person is the stream of numbers 67, -21,
16, -8, 51, 27, 52, -26.

Decryption process

1. Place the encrypted stream of numbers that represented an encrypted message into a
matrix
2. Multiply by the decoding matrix. The decoding matrix is the inverse of the encoding
matrix
3. Convert the matrix into a stream of numbers
4. Convert the numbers into the text of the original message

Example

The message you need to decipher is the encrypted data stream 67, -21, 16, -8, 51, 27, 52, -
26.

NB: The encryption matrix is not transmitted. It is known by the receiving party so that they
can decrypt the message. Other times, the inverse is known by the receiving party. The
encryption matrix cannot be sent with the data; otherwise, anyone could grab the data and
decode the information. Also, by not having the decoding matrix, someone intercepting the
message doesn’t know what size of matrix to use.

The receiving end gets the encrypted message and places it into matrix form.

67 −21
X= (16 −8 )
51 27
52 −26

The receiver must calculate the inverse of the encrypted matrix. this would be the decryption
matrix or the decoding matrix.
0.3 0.2
B-1 = ( )
0.1 0.4

The receiver then multiplies the encrypted data by the inverse of the encryption matrix.

18 5
A = XB -1 =
(4 0)
18 21
3 0

The receiver then takes the matrix and breaks it apart into values 18, 5, 4, 0, 18, 21, 13, 0
and converts each of those into a character according to numbering scheme. 18 = R, 5 = E,
4 = D, 0 = space, 18 = R, 21 = U, 13 = M, 0 = space = “RED RUM”

MR HILLARY………mathematics is a life style……live it…

77
Exercise

−1 5 −1
Using encryption matrix B = (−2 11 7) encrypt message “I LOVE MONICA”.
1 −5 2
Write the stream of numbers that will be send.

(Ans: 1, -52, -7, -66, ................. …-1, -2, 1)

Storage of information

In mathematics definition, a matrix finds application in computing and database

management, a basic starting point being the concept of arrays.

A two dimension arrays can function exactly like a matrix.

MR HILLARY………mathematics is a life style……live it…

78
 A set is a collection of objects. Objects in a set are called elements. A set is denoted by
capital letters and the elements by small letters.

E.g. A {a,b,c}

If a is an element of A, we denote as a∈ A.

A set is called finite if it contains finite number of elements. If a set is not finite, it is
called infinite.

Cardinality

Cardinality of a set is the total number of elements in that set. Denoted by A

e.g. A {5,3,6,1,8,9} . Then A = 6

Types of sets

1) subset

If every element in a set A is also a member of set B then A is a subset of B,

i.e., A ⊂ B.

2) Equal sets

Two sets, A and B, are equal, denoted A=B, if and only if all element in A
belongs to the set B and every element in B belongs to set A, i.e.

A ⊆ B and A ⊇ B.

3) Proper subset

B is a proper subset of A if B is a subset of A, but B does not

equal A.

4) Empty set

The empty set, or null set, is a set which contains no elements,

and is denoted by the symbol ∅.

MR HILLARY………mathematics is a life style……live it…

79
 5) Complementary set

Suppose that A ⊂ S. The complement of set A, denoted as A/ is the set

containing all elements in S that are not in A

6) Universal set

The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called the

sample space (or universal set) and is denoted by U.

7) disjoint of mutually exclusive

Two sets, A and B, are called disjoint of mutually exclusive sets if they
contain no common element. i.e., if A ∩ B = ∅.

Venn diagram

Graphical representation of a set with enclosed areas in the plane.

Basic operations of a set

Union

The union of sets A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set containing all elements in either A or
B or both. i.e.

A ∪ B = {γ : γ ∈ A or γ ∈ B}.

MR HILLARY………mathematics is a life style……live it…

80
Example

Let A = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}, B = {3, 4, 5, 8} then

A ∩ B = {1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

Intersection

The intersection of sets A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set containing all elements in both
A and B. i.e.

A ∩ B = {γ : γ ∈ A and γ ∈ B}.

Example

Let A = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7} and B = {3, 4, 5, 8}, then

A∩B = {3, 5}

Difference

The difference of A and B is denoted as A\B i.e. elements in A and not in B. Also B\A are
elements in B and not in A. The diagrams below shows the shaded region for A − B and

B−A

MR HILLARY………mathematics is a life style……live it…

81
Example

Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}

Then A\B = {1, 2} and B\A = {6, 7}

Some Theorems involving sets:

• A ∪ B = B ∪ A (commutative law for unions)

• (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) (associative law for unions)
• A ∩ B = B ∩ A (commutative law for intersections)
• (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) (associative law for intersections)
• A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) (First distributive law)
• A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) (Second distributive law)
• If A ⊂ B then A/ ⊃ B/
• A ∪ ∅ = A and A ∩ ∅ = ∅
• (A ∪ B)/ = A/ ∩ B/ (De Morgan’s first law)
• (A ∩ B)/ = A/ ∪ B/ (De Morgan’s second law)

Complement of a set

Let A be a set and U be the universal set. Then A/ (called the complement of A and
pronounced “A prime”) denotes the set of all elements in U which do not belong to A.

The graph below shows the shaded region for the complement of set A

MR HILLARY………mathematics is a life style……live it…

82
Example

Let U = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, A = {a, c}, B = {b, c, f}, C = {b, d, e, f}. Then

B∪C = {b, c, d, e, f}

A∩ (B∪C) = {c}

A/ = {b, d, e, f} = C

A/ ∩ (B∪C) = C∩ (B∪C) = {b, d, e, f} = C

Exercise

1. In a wedding ceremony attended by 400, drinks were taken as follows

i. 38 people drank coffee, 48 people drank tea and 39 people drank mineral
water.
ii. 15 people drank coffee and tea, 13 coffee and mineral water and 9 tea and
mineral water.
iii. 5 drank all the three drinks

Using venn diagram, determine how many of the people drank,

i. Mineral water only

ii. Tea and coffee but not mineral water
iii. Non of the 3 drinks

MR HILLARY………mathematics is a life style……live it…

83
 i. Mineral water only = 12
ii. Tea and coffee but not mineral water = 5 + 15 + 19 = 39
iii. Non of the 3 drinks = 322

EXAMPLE

A travel agent surveyed 100 people to find out how many of them had visited the cities of
Melbourne and Brisbane. Thirty-one people had visited Melbourne, 26 people had been to
Brisbane, and 12 people had visited both cities. Draw a Venn diagram to find the number
of people who had visited:

i. Melbourne or Brisbane
ii. Brisbane but not Melbourne
iii. only one of the two cities
iv. Neither city.

SOLUTION

Let M be the set of people who had visited Melbourne, and let B be the set of people who
had visited Brisbane. Let the universal set E be the set of people surveyed.

The information given in the question can now be rewritten as

| M | = 31, | B | = 26, | M ∩ B | = 12 and | E | = 100.

MR HILLARY………mathematics is a life style……live it…

84
Hence number in M only = 31 – 12 = 19

Number in B only = 26 – 12 = 14.

i. Number visiting Melbourne or Brisbane = 19 + 14 +12 = 45.

ii. Number visiting Brisbane only = 14.
iii. Number visiting only one city = 19 + 14 = 33.
iv. Number visiting neither city = 100 – 45 = 55.

MR HILLARY………mathematics is a life style……live it…

85