ASHRAE 55-CHD
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Personal factors
Metabolic rate
Main article: Metabolic rate
People have different metabolic rates that can fluctuate due to activity level and environmental
conditions.[23][24][25] ASHRAE 55-2017 defines metabolic rate as the rate of transformation of
chemical energy into heat and mechanical work by metabolic activities of an individual, per unit
of skin surface area.[1]: 3
Metabolic rate is expressed in units of met, equal to 58.2 W/m2 (18.4 Btu/h·ft2). One met is
equal to the energy produced per unit surface area of an average person seated at rest.
ASHRAE 55 provides a table of metabolic rates for a variety of activities. Some common values
are 0.7 met for sleeping, 1.0 met for a seated and quiet position, 1.2–1.4 met for light activities
standing, 2.0 met or more for activities that involve movement, walking, lifting heavy loads or
operating machinery. For intermittent activity, the standard states that it is permissible to use a
time-weighted average metabolic rate if individuals are performing activities that vary over a
period of one hour or less. For longer periods, different metabolic rates must be considered.[1]
According to ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, estimating metabolic rates is complex, and
for levels above 2 or 3 met – especially if there are various ways of performing such activities –
the accuracy is low. Therefore, the standard is not applicable for activities with an average level
higher than 2 met. Met values can also be determined more accurately than the tabulated ones,
using an empirical equation that takes into account the rate of respiratory oxygen consumption
and carbon dioxide production. Another physiological yet less accurate method is related to the
heart rate, since there is a relationship between the latter and oxygen consumption.[26]
The Compendium of Physical Activities is used by physicians to record physical activities. It has a
different definition of met that is the ratio of the metabolic rate of the activity in question to a
resting metabolic rate.[27] As the formulation of the concept is different from the one that
ASHRAE uses, these met values cannot be used directly in PMV calculations, but it opens up a
new way of quantifying physical activities.
Food and drink habits may have an influence on metabolic rates, which indirectly influences
thermal preferences. These effects may change depending on food and drink intake.[28]
Body shape is another factor that affects metabolic rate and hence thermal comfort. Heat
dissipation depends on body surface area. The surface area of an average person is
1.8 m2 (19 ft2).[1] A tall and skinny person has a larger surface-to-volume ratio, can dissipate heat
more easily, and can tolerate higher temperatures more than a person with a rounded body
shape.[28]
Clothing insulation
Main article: Clothing insulation
The amount of thermal insulation worn by a person has a substantial impact on thermal
comfort, because it influences the heat loss and consequently the thermal balance. Layers of
insulating clothing prevent heat loss and can either help keep a person warm or lead to
overheating. Generally, the thicker the garment is, the greater insulating ability it has. Depending
on the type of material the clothing is made out of, air movement and relative humidity can
decrease the insulating ability of the material.[29][30]
1 clo is equal to 0.155 m2·K/W (0.88 °F·ft2·h/Btu). This corresponds to trousers, a long sleeved
shirt, and a jacket. Clothing insulation values for other common ensembles or single garments
can be found in ASHRAE 55.[1]
Skin wetness
Skin wetness is defined as "the proportion of the total skin surface area of the body covered with
sweat".[31] The wetness of skin in different areas also affects perceived thermal comfort.
Humidity can increase wetness in different areas of the body, leading to a perception of
discomfort. This is usually localized in different parts of the body, and local thermal comfort
limits for skin wetness differ by locations of the body.[32] The extremities are much more sensitive
to thermal discomfort from wetness than the trunk of the body. Although local thermal
discomfort can be caused by wetness, the thermal comfort of the whole body will not be
affected by the wetness of certain parts.
Environmental factors
Air temperature
Main article: Dry-bulb temperature
The air temperature is the average temperature of the air surrounding the occupant, with
respect to location and time. According to ASHRAE 55 standard, the spatial average takes into
account the ankle, waist and head levels, which vary for seated or standing occupants. The
temporal average is based on three-minutes intervals with at least 18 equally spaced points in
time. Air temperature is measured with a dry-bulb thermometer and for this reason it is also
known as dry-bulb temperature.
Mean radiant temperature
Main article: Mean radiant temperature
The radiant temperature is related to the amount of radiant heat transferred from a surface, and
it depends on the material's ability to absorb or emit heat, or its emissivity. The mean radiant
temperature depends on the temperatures and emissivities of the surrounding surfaces as well
as the view factor, or the amount of the surface that is "seen" by the object. So the mean radiant
temperature experienced by a person in a room with the sunlight streaming in varies based on
how much of their body is in the sun.
Air speed
Air speed is defined as the rate of air movement at a point, without regard to direction.
According to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55, it is the average speed of the air surrounding a
representative occupant, with respect to location and time. The spatial average is for three
heights as defined for average air temperature. For an occupant moving in a space the sensors
shall follow the movements of the occupant. The air speed is averaged over an interval not less
than one and not greater than three minutes. Variations that occur over a period greater than
three minutes shall be treated as multiple different air speeds.[33]
Relative humidity
Main article: Relative humidity
Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of the amount of water vapor in the air to the amount of
water vapor that the air could hold at the specific temperature and pressure. While the human
body has thermoreceptors in the skin that enable perception of temperature, relative humidity
is detected indirectly. Sweating is an effective heat loss mechanism that relies on evaporation
from the skin. However at high RH, the air has close to the maximum water vapor that it can
hold, so evaporation, and therefore heat loss, is decreased. On the other hand, very dry
environments (RH < 20–30%) are also uncomfortable because of their effect on the mucous
membranes. The recommended level of indoor humidity is in the range of 30–60% in air
conditioned buildings,[34][35] but new standards such as the adaptive model allow lower and
higher humidity, depending on the other factors involved in thermal comfort.
Recently, the effects of low relative humidity and high air velocity were tested on humans after
bathing. Researchers found that low relative humidity engendered thermal discomfort as well as
the sensation of dryness and itching. It is recommended to keep relative humidity levels higher
in a bathroom than other rooms in the house for optimal conditions.[36]
Various types of apparent temperature have been developed to combine air temperature and air
humidity. For higher temperatures, there are quantitative scales, such as the heat index. For
lower temperatures, a related interplay was identified only qualitatively:
• High humidity and low temperatures cause the air to feel chilly.[37]
• Cold air with high relative humidity "feels" colder than dry air of the same temperature
because high humidity in cold weather increases the conduction of heat from the
body.[38]
There has been controversy over why damp cold air feels colder than dry cold air. Some believe it
is because when the humidity is high, our skin and clothing become moist and are better
conductors of heat, so there is more cooling by conduction.[39]
The influence of humidity can be exacerbated with the combined use of fans (forced convection
cooling).[40]
Natural ventilation
Main article: Natural ventilation
Many buildings use an HVAC unit to control their thermal environment. Other buildings
are naturally ventilated (or would have cross ventilation) and do not rely on mechanical systems
to provide thermal comfort. Depending on the climate, this can drastically reduce energy
consumption. It is sometimes seen as a risk, though, since indoor temperatures can be too
extreme if the building is poorly designed. Properly designed, naturally ventilated buildings keep
indoor conditions within the range where opening windows and using fans in the summer, and
wearing extra clothing in the winter, can keep people thermally comfortable.[41]
Models and indices
There are several different models or indices that can be used to assess thermal comfort
conditions indoors as described below.
PMV/PPD method
Psychrometric Chart
Temperature-relative humidity chart
Two alternative representations of thermal comfort for the PMV/PPD method
The PMV/PPD model was developed by P.O. Fanger using heat-balance equations and empirical
studies about skin temperature to define comfort. Standard thermal comfort surveys ask
subjects about their thermal sensation on a seven-point scale from cold (−3) to hot (+3).
Fanger's equations are used to calculate the predicted mean vote (PMV) of a group of subjects
for a particular combination of air temperature, mean radiant temperature, relative humidity, air
speed, metabolic rate, and clothing insulation.[5] PMV equal to zero is representing thermal
neutrality, and the comfort zone is defined by the combinations of the six parameters for which
the PMV is within the recommended limits (−0.5 < PMV < +0.5).[1] Although predicting the
thermal sensation of a population is an important step in determining what conditions are
comfortable, it is more useful to consider whether or not people will be satisfied. Fanger
developed another equation to relate the PMV to the Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD).
This relation was based on studies that surveyed subjects in a chamber where the indoor
conditions could be precisely controlled.[5]
The PMV/PPD model is applied globally but does not directly take into account the adaptation
mechanisms and outdoor thermal conditions.[3][42][43]
ASHRAE Standard 55-2017 uses the PMV model to set the requirements for indoor thermal
conditions. It requires that at least 80% of the occupants be satisfied.[1]
The CBE Thermal Comfort Tool for ASHRAE 55[9] allows users to input the six comfort parameters
to determine whether a certain combination complies with ASHRAE 55. The results are displayed
on a psychrometric or a temperature-relative humidity chart and indicate the ranges of
temperature and relative humidity that will be comfortable with the given the values input for
the remaining four parameters.[44]
The PMV/PPD model has a low prediction accuracy.[45] Using the world largest thermal comfort
field survey database,[46] the accuracy of PMV in predicting occupant's thermal sensation was
only 34%, meaning that the thermal sensation is correctly predicted one out of three times. The
PPD was overestimating subject's thermal unacceptability outside the thermal neutrality ranges
(-1≤PMV≤1). The PMV/PPD accuracy varies strongly between ventilation strategies, building
types and climates.[45]
Elevated air speed method
ASHRAE 55 2013 accounts for air speeds above 0.2 metres per second (0.66 ft/s) separately
than the baseline model. Because air movement can provide direct cooling to people,
particularly if they are not wearing much clothing, higher temperatures can be more
comfortable than the PMV model predicts. Air speeds up to 0.8 m/s (2.6 ft/s) are allowed
without local control, and 1.2 m/s is possible with local control. This elevated air movement
increases the maximum temperature for an office space in the summer to 30 °C from 27.5 °C
(86.0–81.5 °F).[1]
Virtual Energy for Thermal Comfort
"Virtual Energy for Thermal Comfort" is the amount of energy that will be required to make a
non-air-conditioned building relatively as comfortable as one with air-conditioning. This is based
on the assumption that the home will eventually install air-conditioning or heating.[47] Passive
design improves thermal comfort in a building, thus reducing demand for heating or cooling. In
many developing countries, however, most occupants do not currently heat or cool, due to
economic constraints, as well as climate conditions which border lines comfort conditions such
as cold winter nights in Johannesburg (South Africa) or warm summer days in San Jose, Costa
Rica. At the same time, as incomes rise, there is a strong tendency to introduce cooling and
heating systems. If we recognize and reward passive design features that improve thermal
comfort today, we diminish the risk of having to install HVAC systems in the future, or we at least
ensure that such systems will be smaller and less frequently used. Or in case the heating or
cooling system is not installed due to high cost, at least people should not suffer from discomfort
indoors. To provide an example, in San Jose, Costa Rica, if a house were being designed with high
level of glazing and small opening sizes, the internal temperature would easily rise above 30 °C
(86 °F) and natural ventilation would not be enough to remove the internal heat gains and
solar gains. This is why Virtual Energy for Comfort is important.
World Bank's assessment tool the EDGE software (Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies)
illustrates the potential issues with discomfort in buildings and has created the concept of
Virtual Energy for Comfort which provides for a way to present potential thermal discomfort.
This approach is used to award for design solutions which improves thermal comfort even in a
fully free running building. Despite the inclusion of requirements for overheating in CIBSE,
overcooling has not been assessed. However, overcooling can be an issue, mainly in the
developing world, for example in cities such as Lima (Peru), Bogota, and Delhi, where cooler
indoor temperatures can occur frequently. This may be a new area for research and design
guidance for reduction of discomfort.
Cooling Effect
ASHRAE 55-2017 defines the Cooling Effect (CE) at elevated air speed (above 0.2 metres per
second (0.66 ft/s)) as the value that, when subtracted from both the air temperature and the
mean radiant temperature, yields the same SET value under still air (0.1 m/s) as in the first SET
calculation under elevated air speed.[1]
The CE can be used to determine the PMV adjusted for an environment with elevated air
speed using the adjusted temperature, the adjusted radiant temperature and still air (0.2
metres per second (0.66 ft/s)). Where the adjusted temperatures are equal to the original air
and mean radiant temperatures minus the CE.
Local thermal discomfort
Avoiding local thermal discomfort, whether caused by a vertical air temperature difference
between the feet and the head, by an asymmetric radiant field, by local convective cooling
(draft), or by contact with a hot or cold floor, is essential to providing acceptable thermal
comfort. People are generally more sensitive to local discomfort when their thermal sensation is
cooler than neutral, while they are less sensitive to it when their body is warmer than neutral.[33]
Radiant temperature asymmetry
Large differences in the thermal radiation of the surfaces surrounding a person may cause local
discomfort or reduce acceptance of the thermal conditions. ASHRAE Standard 55 sets limits on
the allowable temperature differences between various surfaces. Because people are more
sensitive to some asymmetries than others, for example that of a warm ceiling versus that of hot
and cold vertical surfaces, the limits depend on which surfaces are involved. The ceiling is not
allowed to be more than +5 °C (9.0 °F) warmer, whereas a wall may be up to +23 °C (41 °F)
warmer than the other surfaces.[1]
Draft
While air movement can be pleasant and provide comfort in some circumstances, it is
sometimes unwanted and causes discomfort. This unwanted air movement is called "draft" and
is most prevalent when the thermal sensation of the whole body is cool. People are most likely
to feel a draft on uncovered body parts such as their head, neck, shoulders, ankles, feet, and
legs, but the sensation also depends on the air speed, air temperature, activity, and clothing.[1]
Floor surface temperature
Floors that are too warm or too cool may cause discomfort, depending on footwear. ASHRAE 55
recommends that floor temperatures stay in the range of 19–29 °C (66–84 °F) in spaces where
occupants will be wearing lightweight shoes.[1]
Standard effective temperature
Standard effective temperature (SET) is a model of human response to the thermal environment.
Developed by A.P. Gagge and accepted by ASHRAE in 1986,[48] it is also referred to as the Pierce
Two-Node model.[49] Its calculation is similar to PMV because it is a comprehensive comfort
index based on heat-balance equations that incorporates the personal factors of clothing and
metabolic rate. Its fundamental difference is it takes a two-node method to represent human
physiology in measuring skin temperature and skin wettedness.[48]
The SET index is defined as the equivalent dry bulb temperature of an isothermal environment
at 50% relative humidity in which a subject, while wearing clothing standardized for activity
concerned, would have the same heat stress (skin temperature) and thermoregulatory strain
(skin wettedness) as in the actual test environment.[48]
Research has tested the model against experimental data and found it tends to overestimate
skin temperature and underestimate skin wettedness.[49][50] Fountain and Huizenga (1997)
developed a thermal sensation prediction tool that computes SET.[51] The SET index can also be
calculated using either the CBE Thermal Comfort Tool for ASHRAE 55,[9] the Python package
pythermalcomfort,[10] or the R package comf.
Adaptive comfort model
Adaptive chart according to ASHRAE Standard 55-2010
The adaptive model is based on the idea that outdoor climate might be used as a proxy of indoor
comfort because of a statistically significant correlation between them. The adaptive hypothesis
predicts that contextual factors, such as having access to environmental controls, and past
thermal history can influence building occupants' thermal expectations and
preferences.[3] Numerous researchers have conducted field studies worldwide in which they
survey building occupants about their thermal comfort while taking simultaneous environmental
measurements. Analyzing a database of results from 160 of these buildings revealed that
occupants of naturally ventilated buildings accept and even prefer a wider range of
temperatures than their counterparts in sealed, air-conditioned buildings because their
preferred temperature depends on outdoor conditions.[3] These results were incorporated in the
ASHRAE 55-2004 standard as the adaptive comfort model. The adaptive chart relates indoor
comfort temperature to prevailing outdoor temperature and defines zones of 80% and 90%
satisfaction.[1]
The ASHRAE-55 2010 Standard introduced the prevailing mean outdoor temperature as the
input variable for the adaptive model. It is based on the arithmetic average of the mean daily
outdoor temperatures over no fewer than 7 and no more than 30 sequential days prior to the
day in question.[1] It can also be calculated by weighting the temperatures with different
coefficients, assigning increasing importance to the most recent temperatures. In case this
weighting is used, there is no need to respect the upper limit for the subsequent days. In order
to apply the adaptive model, there should be no mechanical cooling system for the space,
occupants should be engaged in sedentary activities with metabolic rates of 1–1.3 met, and a
prevailing mean temperature of 10–33.5 °C (50.0–92.3 °F).[1]
This model applies especially to occupant-controlled, natural-conditioned spaces, where the
outdoor climate can actually affect the indoor conditions and so the comfort zone. In fact,
studies by de Dear and Brager showed that occupants in naturally ventilated buildings were
tolerant of a wider range of temperatures.[3] This is due to both behavioral and physiological
adjustments, since there are different types of adaptive processes.[52] ASHRAE Standard 55-2010
states that differences in recent thermal experiences, changes in clothing, availability of control
options, and shifts in occupant expectations can change people's thermal responses.[1]
Adaptive models of thermal comfort are implemented in other standards, such as European EN
15251 and ISO 7730 standard. While the exact derivation methods and results are slightly
different from the ASHRAE 55 adaptive standard, they are substantially the same. A larger
difference is in applicability. The ASHRAE adaptive standard only applies to buildings without
mechanical cooling installed, while EN15251 can be applied to mixed-mode buildings, provided
the system is not running.[53]
There are basically three categories of thermal adaptation, namely: behavioral, physiological,
and psychological.
Psychological adaptation
An individual's comfort level in a given environment may change and adapt over time due to
psychological factors. Subjective perception of thermal comfort may be influenced by the
memory of previous experiences. Habituation takes place when repeated exposure moderates
future expectations, and responses to sensory input. This is an important factor in explaining the
difference between field observations and PMV predictions (based on the static model) in
naturally ventilated buildings. In these buildings, the relationship with the outdoor temperatures
has been twice as strong as predicted.[3]
Psychological adaptation is subtly different in the static and adaptive models. Laboratory tests of
the static model can identify and quantify non-heat transfer (psychological) factors that affect
reported comfort. The adaptive model is limited to reporting differences (called psychological)
between modeled and reported comfort.[citation needed]
Thermal comfort as a "condition of mind" is defined in psychological terms. Among the factors
that affect the condition of mind (in the laboratory) are a sense of control over the temperature,
knowledge of the temperature and the appearance of the (test) environment. A thermal test
chamber that appeared residential "felt" warmer than one which looked like the inside of a
refrigerator.[54]
Physiological adaptation