Grammar

A common definition of grammar would be is that it is a set of rules that help us make
meaning of the words we utter and hear.

Different types of Grammar

1. Mental Grammar: describes grammar as a mental system that generates and interprets
novel utterances. It supports the belief that all individuals can learn grammar.
2. Prescriptive Grammar: grammar is a set of prescriptions and proscriptions about
language forms and their use for a particular language. This grammar follows the grammar
rules religiously.
3. Descriptive Grammar: Is concerned with how the language is actually used. It observes
the language use of those proficient users of the language.
Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Grammar
Mr. Camiller is one of the English Majors.
• Looking at the prescriptive lens, “Mr. Camiller” is the antecedent of the
relative pronoun ‘who’, hence the verb used would be the be verb ‘is’ as it
is singular.
• However, with the descriptivist’s point of view, “the English Majors” would
be the antecedent and the verb used would be ‘are’ as the relative pronoun
now is pertaining to a plural noun.
4. Linguistic Grammar: grammar is focusing on the given linguistic theory.
5. Reference Grammar: where grammar is a work that treats the major structures of a
language. You follow a reference book in studying this grammar.
6. Pedagogical Grammar: the grammar structures and rules are combined for instructional
and assessment purposes. The grammatical content and methods used in teaching a
language to learners who are not native speakers; its primary goal is to enhance fluency
and accuracy in language use than theoretical knowledge.
7. Teacher’s Grammar: the structures and rules combined for instructional purposes for the
teachers. (Usually more detailed and comprehensive.)

Grammar Teaching
Traditionally, grammar teaching is viewed as the presentation and practice of discrete
grammatical instruction. The idea promulgated in the teachers’ handbook.

▪ first, some lessons might be solely presentations or solely practice. (only done with
easy grammar structures)
▪ second, the grammar teaching would proceed to discover the rules without
presentations and practices.
▪ third, teaching can be done by simply exposing learners to input contrived
providing multiple exemplars of the target structure. (exposure to the target
language without the actual presentation and practice.)
▪ fourth, can be conducted by means of corrective feedback on learners’ errors when
these arise in the context of performing some communicative texts.
 According to Ellis (2006) grammar teaching involves any instructional technique that draw
learners’ attention to some grammatical form in such a way that it helps them either to understand
them meta linguistically and/or production so that they can internalize it.

For Borg (1998), grammar teaching refers to instructions designed to enhance students’
awareness of the morphosyntactic features of a language.

Rod Ellis (2006) Current Grammar Teaching Issues

Rod Ellis examines eight central questions about grammar teaching in light of Second
Language Acquisition (SLA) research. Rather than prescribing one “best” approach, Ellis surveys
empirical findings, theoretical positions, and pedagogical options — then explains his own
informed stance. The goal is to problematize common assumptions and show where research
points, where it’s inconclusive, and where further study is needed.

Key Issues and Insights (Ellis, 2006)

1. Should Grammar Be Taught?

Research demonstrates that grammar instruction facilitates second language acquisition

(SLA). It helps learners develop both explicit knowledge (conscious understanding of rules) and
implicit knowledge (unconscious, automatic language use). Instructed learners generally progress
faster and achieve higher levels of accuracy than naturalistic learners.
However, Ellis emphasizes that teaching grammar alone is not sufficient. Instruction
must align with learners’ developmental stages—the natural order in which grammatical features
are acquired. Learners do not always acquire what they are taught, and mechanical teaching of
rules does not guarantee communicative competence.

2. What Grammar Should Be Taught?

Ellis suggests that grammar instruction should be based on descriptive and functional
models—those that connect form, meaning, and use—rather than purely structural or generative
approaches.

Teachers should:

• Prioritize problematic or frequently misused structures, rather than attempting

to teach all of grammar.

• Use resources such as learner error analyses or dictionaries of common errors to

identify which structures need focus.
• Consider both the learners’ first language influence (L1 interference) and
developmental readiness. He warns against overreliance on contrastive analysis
or the idea of teaching the entire grammar system, as both approaches are
impractical and unsupported by evidence.

3. When Should Grammar Be Taught?

There is a long-standing debate between early and delayed grammar instruction.

• Early instruction: Supporters argue that early grammar teaching helps form correct
habits and prevents fossilization (the fixing of errors). It can also provide learners
with “hooks” for understanding language input and later development.
 • Delayed instruction: Advocates for delayed grammar teaching (Ellis included)
argue that beginning learners benefit more from meaning-focused activities that
develop basic communicative skills. Grammar should be introduced once learners
have acquired a foundation of vocabulary and expression. Research from
immersion programs shows that learners can acquire basic structures naturally
through exposure and communication before explicit grammar is introduced.

However, Ellis concluded that grammar is best taught after learners gain some
communicative ability, though feedback on basic grammatical features can be provided from the
start.

4. Should Grammar Teaching Be Massed or Distributed?

• “Massed” instruction: concentrates grammar teaching in a short time (e.g., several
lessons in one week).
• “Distributed” instruction: spreads it out over longer periods.

Ellis notes that research evidence is limited and inconclusive. Some studies found that
massed instruction can accelerate progress, but others suggest that distributed exposure better
supports long-term retention. He calls for more research comparing both approaches but
encourages teachers to experiment, depending on time constraints and learning goals.

5. Should Grammar Teaching Be Intensive or Extensive?

• Intensive instruction focuses deeply on one grammatical structure (e.g., the past
tense) over multiple lessons. Intensive teaching helps learners master complex or
“marked” structures.

• Extensive instruction addresses many grammatical structures briefly and often

incidentally (e.g., through corrective feedback during communication). Extensive
teaching promotes natural acquisition of a wide range of forms in real contexts.

Ellis argues that both approaches are necessary and should be balanced: He
recommends balancing both—using focused lessons for difficult items and incidental feedback
during communicative activities for broader grammar exposure.

6. Is There Any Value in Teaching Explicit Grammar Knowledge?

Ellis distinguishes between:

• Explicit knowledge: conscious awareness of grammatical rules.

• Implicit knowledge: unconscious, automatic language use in communication.

Three main positions exist:

1. Non-interface (Krashen): Explicit knowledge cannot become implicit.

2. Interface (DeKeyser): Explicit knowledge can become implicit through practice.

3. Weak interface (Ellis): Explicit knowledge can help learners notice forms and patterns,
thereby supporting implicit learning.

Ellis supports the weak interface position. Teaching explicit grammar helps learners “notice
the gap” between their output and target forms, which encourages gradual acquisition.

He also discusses teaching methods:

• Deductive (rule-first) instruction works better for simpler rules.
 • Inductive (discovery-based) teaching suits complex patterns and analytical
learners.

Ellis states that a flexible combination of both is most effective in learning and teaching the
target language.

7. Is There a Best Way to Teach Grammar for Implicit Knowledge?

Two broad instructional options exist:

• Input-based instruction: focuses on comprehension (e.g., exposure to structured

input where target forms appear frequently).

• Production-based instruction: emphasizes language use and output (e.g., tasks

requiring learners to produce specific forms).

Both approaches can lead to acquisition. In practice, learners often engage in both processes
simultaneously—listening or reading (input) while mentally rehearsing or speaking (output).
Ellis also highlights the role of corrective feedback, distinguishing between:

• Implicit feedback (e.g., recasts that reformulate errors without overt correction).

• Explicit feedback (e.g., directly telling learners their mistake).

He concludes that a mixture of implicit and explicit feedback is most effective, especially
when adapted to context and learner level.

8. Should Grammar Be Taught in Separate Lessons or Integrated into Communicative

Activities?
Ellis identifies three approaches to form-focused instruction:

1. Focus on forms – teaching grammar in isolation, structure-by-structure.

2. Planned focus on form – designing communicative tasks that elicit specific grammatical
structures.

3. Incidental focus on form – addressing grammar that naturally arises during

communicative interaction.

He argues that grammar should be both taught separately and integrated into
communication. Separate grammar lessons can provide explicit explanation and practice, while
integrated lessons allow learners to apply forms meaningfully. The key is to link grammatical form
to its communicative function.

Conclusion

Ellis acknowledges that while traditional approaches based on explicit explanation and
repetitive drills can produce short-term knowledge, they rarely lead to the development of implicit
grammatical competence—the automatic and fluent use of grammar in real communication.
Despite widespread agreement on this limitation, scholars and teachers remain divided on what
methods should replace the old paradigms. To provide direction, Ellis articulates ten guiding
principles or beliefs about grammar teaching, grounded in SLA research and his own theoretical
perspective.

Ellis’s Ten Beliefs About Grammar Teaching

1. Grammar instruction should emphasize not just form, but also meaning and use.
2. Teachers should target problematic grammatical structures.
 3. Grammar is best taught after learners develop some communicative competence.
4. A “focus-on-forms” approach is valid when paired with communicative practice.
5. Experimentation with massed instruction should be considered.
6. Combine input-based and output-based instruction.
7. Explicit knowledge supports implicit acquisition.
8. Incidental focus-on-form has special value.
9. Corrective feedback is essential.
10. Grammar instruction should be both separate and integrated.

Massed Distributed

Extensive Intensive

Implicit Explicit

Focus on form Focus on forms

History of Language Teaching

Early 20th century
Grammar-Translation Method

▪ The lessons would typically consist of 1 to 2 new grammar structures. A lot

of vocabulary and some practice examples that was translated in the L1 to L2 vice versa.
▪ This method is considered to be very controlled system with heavy
emphasis on accuracy and explicit grammar rules. The context focused on reading and writing
literacy materials, which highlighted the archaic vocabulary found in day-to-day life. This method
became increasingly pedantic and it became a problem.
▪ It focuses on the ability to ‘analyze’ the language and not to the ‘ability’ to
use it. And in addition to emphasis on reading and writing, and little to promote on ability to
communicate orally and aurally.
Direct Method

▪ By Beginning of the 20th century, new user-based idea had coalesced into.
▪ The emphasis is exposure to oral language with listening and speaking as
it’s primary skills.
▪ Meaning was related directly to the target language, without the step of
translating it to the L1, with explicit grammar teaching also downplayed. It imitated how a mother
tongue would be learned naturally. With listening first, then speaking, and only later with reading
and listening.
▪ Our problem with this is that it requires the teacher or instructor to be highly
proficient to the target language. However, this is not always possible.
▪ It also mimicked L1 learning, but did not take account the differences
between L1 and L2 acquisition.
▪ This method continued to hold until WW2 (1945). During the war, the
weakness of all mentioned approaches became apparent as the American Military found itself short
on people who were conventionally fluent in the foreign language. It needed to train the soldiers
orally and aurally.
 Audio-lingualism/Army Method (behaviorism/mim-mem method)

▪ American structural linguist stepped up the gap and developed a program

which borrowed from direct method. It emphasizes on listening and speaking.
▪ It drew its rationale from the dominant psychological theory of the time
which was behaviorism; that essentially said that language learning was result of habit formation.
▪ Thus, the method included activities which were believed to be reinforcing
‘good’ language behavior such as close attention to pronunciation, intensive oral drilling, a focus
on sentence and memorization.
▪ Students are expected to learn through drills rather than through an analysis
of target language. The success meant method was effective. And it was called the “Army Method”

Year 1950’s to 1980’s

Cognitivist

▪ Chomsky’s 1959 attack on the behaviorist underpinning of structural

linguistics in the late 1950’s proved decisiveness and associated pedagogical approach.
▪ supplanting the idea of behaviorist idea of habit approach, language was
now seen as governed by cognitive factors, in particular a set of particular abstract rules which
were assumed to be abstract.
▪ Chomsky suggested that children form hypothesis about their language
learning that they test out. The flurry of research by Chomsky’s idea did much to stimulate the
development of L2 acquisition and its psychological ‘psycholinguistics’.
▪ Environment as input →LAD →output (creative construction/hypothesis
testing →language↩

Communicative Competence

▪ In the early 1970’s, Dell Hymes (1972) added this idea, which emphasizes
that language competence consists of more than just being able to ‘form grammatically correct
sentences but also to know when and where to uses these sentences and to whom.’
▪ This helped to swing the focus and form language correctivness (accuracy)
to how suitable any of the language use language was for a particular context (appropriaty).
▪ At the same time, Halliday (1973) systematical-functional grammar was
offering an alternative to Chomsky’s approach in which language was seen not as something
exclusively internal to a learner, but rather as a means of functions. Halliday identified three types
of function:
1. Ideational (Telling facts/experience)
2. Interpersonal (maintaining personal relationships with people)
3. Textual (expressing the connection and organization with a text, for
example: clarity. summarization, signaling, etc.)
▪ Canale and Swain’s (1980) communicative competence gave 3 subparts
and on 1983 only Swain added the last one:
1. Grammatical/Linguistics Competence
2. Sociolinguistic Competence
3. Strategic Competence
4. Discourse Competence (1983)
▪ The approach to language linguistically to communicative and dynamic.
 Year 1982
Communicative Language Teaching

▪ In the early 1980’s, a theory of acquisitions promoted by Krashen (1982)

focused attention on the role of impact.
▪ Krashen’s “Monitor theory” prosited that a second language was mainly
unconsciously acquired. Through exposure to “comprehensive input” rather than being learned
through explicit exercise, that it required focus on meaning rather than form and the learner’s
emotional state can affect the acquisition (affective filter).
▪ Susan Gass → Comprehended Input (Student’s View)
Stephen Krashen → Comprehensible Input (Teacher’s View)
▪ This methodology focuses on fluency rather than their grammatical
accuracy.
▪ It has often taught through problem-solving activities and tasks which
requires students to converse to others.
▪ It helps students be fluent but was insignificant to ensure accuracy.

Focus-on-Form
▪ the movement is an attempt to inject well-considered explicit instruction
back into language lessons without the positive feature and result of communicative approach.

3 Dimensions of Grammar by Larsen Freeman (2003)

Prototypical Units of the Three Dimensions of Grammar

Form Meaning

Use

Form
These the visible unit of the structure that we can see, such as:

▪ Phonology
▪ Graphology: the study of handwriting, for example as used to infer a person's character.
▪ Semiology: the study of symbols or signs.
▪ Morphology: in this category, it is limited to inflectional morphemes and the function
words.
▪ Syntax
Meaning
This the study of meanings embedded in the language:

▪ Semantics

Although the expressions of meaning are distributed across the expressions meaning is
units are called ‘lexicons’, derivational morphemes, and multiword strings, and notions.

It is also the study of meaning potential can be also sarcasm or implicatures. Nevertheless,
the meaning in a word or lexicogrammar string is only a potential meaning.

Use
▪ Pragmatics

Not only the meaning encoded in language but what the people mean by th language they
were they use. The units in this dimension is the social functions: inviting, agreeing, disagreeing,
disagreeing, and such

What people mean by the language they used or Discourse Patterns.

The ability to use grammatical structures does not mean using the forms accurately. It means using
them meaningfully.

Samples:

Form, Meaning, and Use of English Existential There

Form
How is it formed?
There in subject
position. Usually Meaning
followed by be verb What does it mean?
The logical subject Existence
follows the verb and Location
governs its number
A prepositional
phrase often follows
the logical subject.

Use
When/why is it used?
To introduce new
information in end-focus
position
Here is a similar analysis for another common English structure: The Passive Voice.

This analysis breaks down the passive voice (e.g., "The window was broken") using the same three
dimensions. (from AI)

Form (How is it formed?)

• The structure is subject + be-verb + past participle.

• The subject of the sentence is the receiver (or patient) of the action, not the doer.

• The be verb can change to show any tense (e.g., is taken, was taken, has been taken, will
be taken).

• The doer of the action (the agent) is often omitted.

• If the agent is included, it is introduced by the preposition "by" (e.g., "The window was
broken by the boy").

Meaning (What does it mean?)

• Semantics: The passive voice describes what happened to the subject. The subject is acted
upon.

• It contrasts with the Active Voice, which describes what the subject did.

• Active: "The boy broke the window." (Focus is on the boy and his action).
• Passive: "The window was broken." (Focus is on the window and its state).

Use (When/why is it used?)

• Pragmatics: A speaker chooses the passive voice for specific reasons, often related to
focus.

• When the agent is unknown: "My car was stolen." (We don't know who stole it).

• When the agent is unimportant or obvious: "The decision has been made." (It doesn't
matter who made it, just that it's official).

• To create an objective, formal, or impersonal tone: This is very common in scientific

and academic writing.

o Instead of: "We heated the mixture to 50°C."

o Use: "The mixture was heated to 50°C."

• To place focus on the receiver of the action: "The child was rescued by the firefighter."
(This sentence is about the child, not the firefighter).
Approaches, Methods, Techniques In Teaching Of Grammar
Approaches are set of
correlative assumptions that deals
with the nature of language teaching
and learning. It refers to the theories
about the nature of language and
language learning that serves as the
source of practices and principles in
language teaching.

A Method is an overall plan

for the orderly presentation of
materials, no parts of which
contradicts, and all of which is based
on the selected approach. An approach though is axiomatic (a method procedural).

With one approach you can have many methods, for example:
communicative language teaching → tasked-based, content-based instructions, etc.

A Technique is the implementation that is which actually takes place in the classroom.
It is a particular strategy used to accomplish an immediate objective. It is consistent with a method
and an approach.

Models Of Language That Have Influence Language Teaching Methods And

Approaches
1. Cognitive Model: the view of language by cognitivist. This idea is based that
language reflects properties of the mind Chomsky's theory of universal grammar is well developed
examples of a cognitive model of language.
2. Structural Model: the structural view of language. Sees language as a system of
structurally related elements for coding of meaning. The target of the language learning is to see
the mastery of elements of the system generally defined as terms.
3. Functional Model: The functional view of language seos language as a vehicle for
the expression of functional meanings and for performing real-world activities. The functional
models of language are linked to the concept of communicative competence-knowing how
language is used to achieve different kinds of communicative purposes. The Competency-Based
Language Teaching falls under this model.
4. Interactional Model: The interactional view sees language as a vehicle for the
realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between
individuals. Negotiation of meaning is believed to play a central role in interactive views of
language as exampled in Task-Based language Teaching.

Discourse Theory comes to play a role in this model. Evelyn Hatch said we can only acquire
language if we are made to interact.

5. Sociocultural Model: This views language as a communicative activity in which

the social context is central. Knowledge is constructed through social interaction with others and
reflects the learner’s culture. customs, and beliefs, as well as the collaborative activities people are
engaged in. A sociocultural view of language is seen in Task Based Language Teaching. Content-
Based Instruction, and Cooperative language Learning. Dell Hymes: we need contexts for speech.
6. Genre Model: is a method of teaching grammar and writing that emphasizes how
language is structured and used differently across various genres (such as narratives, reports,
letters, essays, or procedures). It teaches students to understand the purpose, structure, and
linguistic features of each genre so they can produce similar texts effectively.
7. Lexical Model: The lexical view of language prioritizes the role of lexis and lexical
chunks or phrases in language and highlights the interrelatedness of grammar and vocabulary.
Advocates of lexical models of language suggest that grammatical competence arises out of phrase
and lexically-based learning and argue for a greater role of vocabulary as well as lexical phrases
and chunks in language teaching. This view is reflected in the Lexical Approach and also in Corpus
Based Language Teaching.

Presentation-Practice-Produce (PPP) Model

In the PPP model, grammar instruction consists of a structured three stage sequence: a presentation
stage, a practice stage, and a production stage.
Presentation Stage

• the now grammar rule or structure is introduced, usually through a text, a dialogue.
or a story that includes the structure. The students listen to the text or read it out loud.
• The main purpose of this stage is to help students become familiar with the new
grammatical structure and keep it in their short-term memory (Penny Ur, 1988)
• Abstractions is presented through dialogues or texts.

Practice Stage

• in which students are given various kinds of written and spoken exercises to repeat
manipulate, or reproduce the new forms.
• The practice stage usually begins with controlled practices that focus learner
attention on specific structures and then moves to less controlled practices with more open-ended
activities.
• The aim of the practice stage is to help students gain control of the knowledge
introduced in the presentation stage, to take it in, and to move it from their short-term memory to
their long-term memory (Ur. 1988)

Controlled→ Discrete Point→ Objective

Integrated Point→ Subjective

Controlled Problem:

The students _______ (practice) their presentation now.

A. Practice
B. Are practicing
C. Practiced
D. Were practicing

• If an error was made, direction correction or metalinguistic explanation is supposed

to be done for students to learn.
Production Stage

• leaners are encouraged to use the rules they have learned in the presentation and
practice stages more freely and in more communicative activities.
• The aim of this last stage is to fully master the new form by enabling leaners to
internalize the rules and use and automatically and spontaneously. In a sense, them here is to
develop fluency.