IFR: Performance

Based Navigation
(PBN)
INDEX
Performance Based Navigation
(PBN)__________________________________________________2-6
Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS)______________________________________________7
Satellite-Based Augmentation System
(SBAS)_________________________________________7-9
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
_______________________________________________9
Ground-Based Augmentation System
(GBAS)________________________________________10-11
Comparison: SBAS vs.
GBAS___________________________________________________________12
Aircraft-Based Augmentation System
(ABAS)________________________________________12-13
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
(RAIM)______________________________________14 GPS STATUS
(G1000/Nxi)____________________________________________________________15-19
BARO-VNAV (Barometric Vertical
Navigation)________________________________________20-23
Inertial Reference and Navigation Systems (INS /
IRS)_______________________________24-29
RNAV (Area
Navigation)_____________________________________________________________30-33
RNP (Required Navigation
Performance)____________________________________________34-39
Waypoint
Types____________________________________________________________________40-41
Vertical
Protection____________________________________________________________________4
1 Precision
Approaches_________________________________________________________________42
RNP (Required Navigation
Performance)____________________________________________34-39
Waypoint
Types____________________________________________________________________40-41
Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)
Vertical
1
Protection____________________________________________________________________4
1 Precision Approaches (PRECISION APPROACH
The Concept of PBN

PBN stands for Performance-Based Navigation.

It is not a single system or technology, but rather a modern
methodology a way of doing things that defines how navigation should
be performed based on required accuracy, integrity, availability, and
continuity.

The idea behind PBN emerged when aviation authorities realized that
airspace was becoming increasingly congested, and that we needed to
take advantage of modern technology to move away from the traditional
“nav-aid to nav-aid” structure used for routing air traffic.

Instead of relying exclusively on ground-based stations like VORs or

NDBs, PBN allows aircraft to navigate directly between waypoints using
Area Navigation (RNAV) and Required Navigation Performance
(RNP) systems.
This makes routing more flexible, more efficient, and safer, while
reducing ATC workload.

How PBN Works

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The PBN concept relies on two core elements:

1. The Navaid Infrastructure:

This includes both ground-based and space-based equipment.
The latter refers mainly to satellite constellations that provide
global coverage.

2. The Navigation Specification:

Think of this as a grade assigned to a specific RNAV or RNP
system, describing how accurately and reliably it must perform in
a given route or airspace segment.

System Performance Parameters

PBN defines navigation system performance through four key

parameters:

Accuracy: How close your indicated position is to your true position.

Integrity: How much you can trust the information being displayed.

Availability: What percentage of time the data is accessible and

reliable.

Continuity: How likely it is that the navigation function will remain

uninterrupted during a critical phase, such as a final approach.

Modern systems have proven to be extremely reliable in all four areas.

Important Notes

 PBN never includes NDBs.

NDBs are considered obsolete and are not part of any PBN
operation.

 No PBN approach can ever be considered a “Precision

Approach.”
Even if some PBN-based procedures offer minima as low as an ILS,
they are still classified as Approaches with Vertical Guidance
(APV) not true precision approaches under ICAO definitions.

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Fundamentals of PBN

For an operator to fly PBN-based routes, they must be certified by

their relevant aviation authority.
This certification process evaluates both the aircraft and the crew,
ensuring that they meet the navigation specification applicable to the
intended route.

Certification factors include:

 Equipment capabilities,

 Crew training and competence,

 MEL (Minimum Equipment List) compliance,

 Operating manuals and checklists, and

 Database validity check procedures.

Only after meeting all these requirements can an operator be authorized

for specific RNAV or RNP operations.

PBN-Based Approaches

RNAV approaches also known as RNP APCH come in several “flavors,”

each defined by its level of guidance:

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The Aim and Evolution of PBN

With the introduction of PBN and the implementation of RNP over the
last 15 years, aviation has entered a transition phase.
No new RNAV procedures are being designed; the global goal is to move
entirely toward RNP-based navigation with even greater accuracy
down to RNP 0.1 or less, used for urban helicopter operations.

The main goals of PBN include:

 Allowing closer route spacing in congested airspace.

 Removing the need for extra spacing during turning segments.

 Reducing holding area sizes and optimizing their placement.

 Introducing offset procedures to allow aircraft to fly parallel

tracks for sequencing or overtaking.

 Creating instrument procedures with built-in turns of fixed

radius for terrain or flow management.

 Managing vertical traffic corridors in TMAs (Terminal

Maneuvering Areas), enabling arrivals and departures to cross
safely within vertical separation margins.

Avionics Requirements

To comply with PBN, the aircraft’s avionics must be able to:

 Continuously display cross-track distance (XTK)

 Provide failure indications and integrity alerts

 Show distance and bearing to the active waypoint

 Store and update navigation databases securely

 Display ground speed (GS) and estimated time enroute (ETE)

to the active waypoint

 Be capable of using SBAS or RAIM for integrity monitoring

In practice, modern systems show cross-track errors below half a

mile, thanks to the precision of current GPS and augmentation systems.

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To summarize, PBN is the evolution of navigation replacing ground-
based routing with performance-based accuracy. RNAV and RNP are its
two key pillars, with RNP adding integrity monitoring and alerting.

All PBN operations must be authorized, and both aircraft and crew
must meet strict technical and training requirements. PBN approaches
LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, LP, and LPV represent different levels of capability
and precision.

RAIM and SBAS ensure reliability and fault detection, while

temperature limits and certification standards maintain safety.

And finally, the entire global aviation system is transitioning toward

RNP-only operations, designed to enhance capacity, precision, and
safety in an increasingly complex airspace.

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Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is the collective

term used to describe all satellite-based radio navigation systems that
provide global positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services.
It is the foundation upon which most modern navigation concepts
including RNAV, RNP, and all PBN operations are built.

GNSS works by measuring the distance between the aircraft and several
satellites orbiting the Earth. Each satellite continuously transmits a
coded radio signal containing precise time and orbital data
(ephemeris).

GNSS is composed of three segments: Core Constellations and

these are the primary positioning systems: GPS (United States),
BeiDou (China), Galileo (European Union), GLONASS (Russian
Federation)

Augmentation Systems

Improve the performance of core GNSS constellations by enhancing

accuracy, integrity, availability, and continuity. ICAO defines three
categories:

SBAS – Satellite-Based Augmentation System

A Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) is a wide-area

differential Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signal
augmentation system. It utilizes a number of geostationary satellites
(GEO) capable of covering vast areas, It broadcasts primary GNSS data
that has been provided with ranging, integrity, and correction
information by a network of SBAS ground stations.

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The primary purpose of SBAS is to provide integrity assurance., It
improves GNSS performance by correcting signal measurement errors
and It also increases accuracy and reduces position errors to less than 1
meter.

SBAS uses GNSS measurements taken by accurately located reference

stations deployed across an entire continent or region. The process
follows this sequence:

1. Reference Stations: Monitor the GNSS signals to determine position

errors.

2. Master Stations: Position errors are sent here, processed, and a

correction message is generated.

3. Uplink Stations: Send these correction messages to the

geostationary satellites.

4. Geostationary Satellites: Serve as an augmentation or overlay

to the original GNSS message and broadcast the correction messages to
aircraft equipped with SBAS.

The performance of GNSS can be improved by regional SBAS (or

Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems). Some examples are:

EGNOS: European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (Europe).

WAAS: Wide Area Augmentation System (U.S.).

MSAS: Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (Japan).

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Other SBAS systems: GAGAN (India), SDCM (Russian Federation), and
BDSBAS (China).

Advantages of SBAS

Integrity: It provides information about the accuracy, integrity,

continuity, and availability of its signals.

Increased Accuracy: It reduces position errors to less than 1 meter.

Reliability: It improves the reliability of GNSS information.

Critical Applications: It makes the use of GNSS possible in situations

where people's lives are at stake or where a form of legal or commercial
guarantee is required.

Aviation Compliance: It enables GPS to satisfy the strict operational

requirements set by the ICAO for critical flight stages, such as final
approaches (e.g., LPV approaches).

Facilitates PBN: It facilitates and makes it possible for airplanes to fly

PBN (Performance-Based Navigation) approaches.

In summary, SBAS is the bridge that takes GNSS from being a

positioning tool to a safe and precise primary navigation system
in environments where the margin for error is zero.

WAAS — Wide Area Augmentation System

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is a Satellite-Based

Augmentation System (SBAS) developed and operated by the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States. It
enhances the accuracy, integrity, availability, and continuity of the
Global Positioning System (GPS), enabling it to meet the
performance requirements for all phases of flight, including precision
approach operations with Localizer Performance with Vertical
Guidance (LPV) minima.

WAAS was designed to correct the inherent errors in standard GPS

signals caused by factors such as satellite orbit and clock
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deviations, ionospheric and tropospheric delays, and signal
distortions due to geometry or atmospheric interference.

By providing real-time differential corrections and integrity monitoring,

WAAS transforms the GPS from a general navigation system into a
precision-capable aviation navigation source.

GBAS – Ground-Based Augmentation System

The Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) is an advanced

navigation and landing aid designed to improve the accuracy, integrity,
and availability of GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System)
signals in the vicinity of an airport. The approach procedure flown using
GBAS data is known as the GBAS Landing System (GLS) approach.

GBAS serves as an alternative to the traditional ILS (Instrument

Landing System). While the ILS uses ground-based radio beams
(localizer and glide slope) to provide precision guidance to a single
runway, GBAS provides satellite-based precision guidance for all
runways within its coverage area, typically up to a radius of 23
nautical miles.

Principle of Operation

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A GBAS installation consists of three to four reference antennas
located on or near the airport, each with a precisely surveyed position.
These antennas continuously receive GNSS signals from multiple
satellites and compare the received data with their known coordinates.
Any differences between the measured and true positions represent
signal errors, such as atmospheric delay or satellite bias.

These errors are processed by the GBAS ground subsystem, which

calculates the necessary corrections. The corrected data is then
transmitted to aircraft via a VHF Data Broadcast (VDB) signal. On
board, the aircraft’s Multimode Receiver (MMR) simultaneously
receives both the original GNSS signals and the correction data from the
GBAS ground station, applying these corrections in real time. This
provides positioning accuracy better than one meter, allowing the
aircraft to follow precise vertical and lateral guidance to the runway.

Advantages of GBAS

Unlike the ILS, which requires separate localizer and glide slope
antennas for each runway end, a single GBAS installation can serve
all runways at an airport, including curved and offset approach paths.
This significantly reduces maintenance costs, ground equipment
requirements, and calibration procedures. In addition, one GBAS station
can support multiple nearby airports within its service range.

From a flight crew perspective, the procedure for flying a GLS approach
is almost identical to an ILS approach. Both provide lateral and vertical
guidance with range information, and both appear similarly on cockpit
displays. The main difference is that ILS approaches are tuned using
frequencies, while GLS approaches are selected using channels.
Therefore, minimal additional training is required for pilots familiar with
ILS operations.

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GLS approaches are selected using channels

Comparison: SBAS vs. GBAS

Both GBAS and SBAS (Satellite-Based Augmentation System)

improve GNSS signal accuracy, but their coverage and infrastructure
differ.

 SBAS systems, such as WAAS (United States), EGNOS (Europe),

MSAS (Japan), and GAGAN (India), provide wide-area coverage
via geostationary satellites, enhancing GNSS signals for en route,
terminal, and approach operations. SBAS supports APV
(Approach with Vertical Guidance) procedures, such as LPV
(Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance) approaches.

 GBAS, by contrast, provides local augmentation around a

specific airport. It uses ground-based reference stations to
calculate real-time corrections transmitted via VHF. GBAS enables
precision approaches equivalent to CAT I, II, or III minima,
achieving accuracy levels far exceeding those of SBAS.

In summary, SBAS supports approaches with vertical guidance (APV),

while GBAS enables true precision approaches (GLS) meeting ICAO
Category II and III standards.

ABAS – Aircraft-Based Augmentation System

The Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS) is an onboard

system designed to enhance the reliability of GNSS signals directly from
the aircraft itself. Unlike other augmentation systems such as SBAS
(Satellite-Based Augmentation System) or GBAS (Ground-Based
Augmentation System), ABAS does not provide accuracy corrections.
Its primary purpose is to ensure signal integrity that is, the ability to
detect when a satellite signal becomes unreliable or faulty.

This integrity monitoring is achieved through an onboard function known

as RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring).
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RAIM continuously analyzes the satellite signals received by the aircraft’s
GNSS receiver, identifying any inconsistencies or failures among
individual satellites. When a fault is detected, RAIM automatically
excludes the defective satellite from the navigation solution,
ensuring that only trustworthy data are used to compute the aircraft’s
position.

Principle of Operation: Consider an aircraft receiving signals from six

GNSS satellites. RAIM groups these satellites into small subsets and
computes position solutions for each combination.

For example using satellites 1, 2, and 4, RAIM calculates a position.

Then, it repeats the calculation using satellites 3, 4, and 5.
If both computed positions are nearly identical, the system assumes the
satellites are operating correctly.

However, if one subset say, using satellite 6 produces a position far

away from the others, RAIM detects a discrepancy. It then identifies
satellite 6 as unreliable and excludes it from the navigation process.

In this way, RAIM acts as an autonomous integrity monitor, constantly

checking satellite geometry, coverage, and predicted signal quality
using satellite ephemeris data. This enables continued safe
navigation even if one or more satellites provide erroneous
information.

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RAIM — Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is an onboard

Aircraft-Based Augmentation System (ABAS) function that
evaluates the integrity of the GNSS signal received by the aircraft.
It provides pilots and flight management systems with confidence in
the accuracy of the navigation solution by detecting, and in some cases
isolating, faulty satellite data without relying on any external
augmentation source such as SBAS or GBAS.

RAIM’s primary objective is integrity assurance.

Unlike SBAS or GBAS, which improve both accuracy and integrity,
RAIM provides integrity only ensuring that navigation errors remain
within safe limits and that the system alerts the crew if this cannot be
guaranteed. Allows your airplane's GPS navigator to confirm that it's
receiving a sufficient number of valid satellite signals to correctly
determine its location and altitude, while rejecting any faulty signals
from malfunctioning satellites. This assurance of positional integrity
requires at least five functioning satellites in view. Various websites and
applications confirm RAIM availability for our intended flight path and
time. If RAIM is, or becomes unavailable, then GPS cannot be used for
navigation.

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15
GPS STATUS (G1000/Nxi)

GPS status page

When you open the GPS Status Page, you’ll see several key elements
displayed.

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 In the top-left corner, there’s
the satellite constellation diagram.
This shows the relative positions
of all the satellites currently within
the receiver’s field of view. Each
symbol represents one satellite,
and their layout helps you
visualize how many satellites are
visible and how they are
distributed around your aircraft, a
good spread across the sky
ensures a stronger, more accurate
signal geometry.
Satellite Constellation Diagram.

In the upper middle section,

you’ll find the Satellite Status box.
This indicates the current
accuracy of your aircraft’s GPS
position fix. It’s essentially a real-
time quality report of how
confident the system is in the
calculated position. Just below
that, separated by a dividing line,
are the current GPS-calculated
aircraft parameters: position,
time, altitude, ground speed, and
track. These values are computed
directly by the GPS receiver based
Satellite Status Box

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 Now, moving to the top-right
corner, you’ll see the Receiver
Status area. This contains two
critical pieces of information. The
first is which receiver is currently
active either GPS 1 or GPS 2
since most systems are dual-
receiver installations for
redundancy. The second line
shows the Solution Type. This tells
you the current navigation state of
the system. The solution can
appear as Acquiring, 2D NAV,

When the receiver is still searching for enough satellites, the status will
display Acquiring. Once the receiver has locked on to a sufficient
number of satellites, it will progress through the stages until it reaches
3D DIFF NAV, which is the optimal condition. This means the GPS is
providing a three-dimensional navigation solution (latitude, longitude,
and altitude) and is also receiving differential corrections from an
augmentation system.

If your GPS solution is

showing anything less than
3D DIFF NAV, ensure that
SBAS is enabled. You can do
this by pressing the SBAS or
WAAS soft key.

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 Then verifying that the checkbox
beside “WAAS” (or the regional
equivalent) is selected. If your
aircraft is equipped with SBAS (
Satellite-Based Augmentation
System) you’ll also see whether
it’s active. In North America, this
system is known as WAAS
(Wide Area Augmentation
System). In Europe, the
equivalent service is EGNOS
(European Geostationary
Navigation Overlay Service),
and in Japan and Australia, it’s
MSAS.

The lower half of the GPS Status Page is dedicated to satellite signal
strength bars. Each bar corresponds to one satellite currently being
tracked. The height and color of each bar show how strong and how
usable the satellite’s signal is. Below every bar, you’ll see a small
number, this is the satellite’s PRN, or Pseudo-Random Noise Number,
which functions as its identification code. GPS satellites are numbered
starting with zero, while WAAS (or SBAS) satellites typically begin with
the number one.

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 No bar means the receiver is
still searching for that satellite. A hollow bar
indicates that the
satellite has been
found and data is
A light blue bar shows
being collected.
that the receiver has
gathered all necessary
data and that the
satellite is now A green bar
available for navigation means the
use. satellite is
actively being
used in the
A checkered bar means navigation
the receiver has excluded solution.
that satellite from
calculations, for example,
if the signal is inconsistent
or faulty.

If the receiver detects a satellite that’s part of the WAAS

differential correction network, you might see a small “D”
indicator showing that the satellite is being used in the
differential computations that improve GPS accuracy. This
ensures that the navigation position you see on your display has
been corrected for timing and atmospheric errors.

Each satellite must transmit data to your receiver for roughly 30

seconds before it can be used for navigation purposes. This is why the
GPS status check is part of the Before Takeoff checklist, because
while the system may already be acquiring satellites during taxi, it may
not yet have completed the process or established a fully reliable 3D
solution. Verifying this before departure guarantees that by the time
you’re airborne and cleared for your RNAV or GPS approach, your
receiver will be fully synchronized, differential corrections will be active,
and the system will be ready to provide full performance-level accuracy.
In short, checking the GPS status page before flight isn’t just a routine
checklist item, it is the pilot’s confirmation that the navigation system is
ready, stable, and compliant with the performance standards required
for instrument flight operations.

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BARO-VNAV (Barometric Vertical Navigation)

BARO-VNAV stands for Barometric Vertical Navigation. It’s a

method of vertical guidance that uses barometric altitude data
(altimeter) to compute and follow a constant descent path instead of
relying on an electronic glide slope (like an ILS) or a satellite vertical
signal (like WAAS). BARO-VNAV is a function of RNAV or RNP systems
that uses barometric altitude from the aircraft’s air data computer
(ADC) to generate a vertical guidance path for descent.

In simpler terms: The aircraft builds a virtual glide path using published
altitude constraints (FAF, MAP, DA) and maintains that path based on
barometric pressure (QNH), not a radio beam.

BARO-VNAV is applied on RNAV (RNP) approaches labeled:

RNP APCH – LNAV/VNAV minima

Or in Jeppesen format:

RNAV (GPS) RWY XX LNAV/VNAV

These approaches provide:

Lateral guidance (LNAV) / Vertical guidance (VNAV)

and that vertical guidance may come from either:

Barometric system (BARO-VNAV)

Satellite-based augmentation (SBAS) e.g., WAAS/EGNOS, as in LPV.

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System Operation - Data Source

- Uses barometric altitude from the Air Data Computer (ADC).

- The FMS or G1000 reads the current QNH and constructs a constant-
angle descent path.

- The system computes the required vertical path from:

-Published waypoints and altitudes

-Descent angle (usually 3°)

-Aircraft position

What the System Does?

The system uses barometric altitude (QNH) as the reference for

vertical position. It calculates a geometric descent path, either:

 Between two defined waypoints, or

 From a single waypoint using a specified descent angle (usually

3°).

The FMS or G1000 then provides lateral guidance (LNAV) and

vertical deviation (VNAV) cues on the PFD.

The aircraft follows this computed “virtual glide path” indicated as

VPATH or VPTH on the flight mode annunciator.

Operational Requirements

Component Requirement

Altimeter Must be serviceable and calibrated

Must be current and local, obtained from an

QNH
approved source (ATC/AWOS)

FMS / AFCS Must support BARO-VNAV vertical path computation

Navigation
Must contain all approach altitudes and angles
Database

Temperature Must be within authorized limits

Authorization Requirements

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To use LNAV/VNAV minima, the aircraft and operator must be
specifically approved for BARO-VNAV operations by their civil
aviation authority (in ICAO states, usually under PBN operational
approval).

Authorization requires:

 Certified RNAV/RNP equipment capable of BARO-VNAV.

 Correct and current QNH from an approved local altimeter

source (ATC, AWOS, or METAR).

 Crew training in use and limitations of BARO-VNAV.

 Operating procedures addressing temperature corrections.

Limitations - Temperature Sensitivity

BARO-VNAV assumes an ISA atmosphere. Any deviation affects the

barometric altitude, which directly distorts the computed path.

 Cold air: The aircraft flies below the intended profile (dangerous
near terrain).

 Hot air: The aircraft flies above the profile.

Therefore, approach charts often state:

“BARO-VNAV not authorized below –15 °C (unless temperature

compensation available).”

Other Authorization Limits

 BARO-VNAV cannot be used on LPV procedures, which

require SBAS vertical guidance instead.

 Some RNAV approaches may display notes such as:

“No local altimeter source available – BARO-VNAV not authorized.”

If no accurate QNH source exists near the aerodrome, barometric

vertical guidance cannot legally be used.

Operational Considerations

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  Pilots must set and verify the QNH before initiating descent.

 The system assumes that QNH remains constant throughout the

final approach.

 VNAV should not be used when QNH is unreliable or

temperature is outside limits.

 On the G1000, VNAV guidance will arm when appropriate and

display “VPTH” when capturing the computed path.

Type of Minima

BARO-VNAV approaches use Decision Altitude (DA/H) instead of MDA,

because they are flown as a Continuous Descent Final Approach
(CDFA).

Example from a Jeppesen chart:

Decision is made at DA, not after leveling off.

Inertial Reference and Navigation Systems (INS / IRS)

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The Inertial Reference System (IRS) is a core component of modern
aircraft avionics.
It provides essential attitude, heading, and navigation data to flight
instruments and flight management systems (FMS). When used as a
standalone navigation source, it forms what is known as an Inertial
Navigation System (INS).

Unlike radio or satellite-based systems, inertial navigation is completely

autonomous, it does not rely on external signals from satellites or
ground stations.
It computes the aircraft’s position, velocity, and attitude using onboard
sensors and internal algorithms.

The heart of the system is the Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), which
contains:

 Three laser gyroscopes (for roll, pitch, and yaw rotation)

 Three accelerometers (for linear motion along each axis)

 A computer processor that integrates all measurements in real

time

The IRS also receives supporting data from other aircraft systems: Initial
position (manual entry or from GNSS/FMS) Barometric altitude (from
the Air Data Computer) True airspeed (for wind vector and
groundspeed calculations)

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Principle of Inertial Navigation

Inertial navigation operates by continuously measuring:

Linear acceleration (using accelerometers)

Angular rotation (using gyroscopes)

These sensors are aligned with the aircraft’s three axes of motion (X,
Y, Z).

By integrating acceleration over time, the system derives velocity, and

by integrating velocity, it determines displacement.

From these values, along with a known initial position, the system can
estimate the aircraft’s current position at any time. This process is
known as dead reckoning navigation, it estimates position by
continuously updating distance and direction from a known starting
point.

Drift and System Accuracy

When we talk about inertial systems, one of the most important things
to understand is that even though they are extremely precise, they are
never perfect. Over time, every inertial system develops small errors in
the measurements taken by its sensors. These errors accumulate
gradually, and the longer the system operates without any external
correction, the greater the deviation becomes between the estimated
position and the aircraft’s true position. This gradual accumulation of
error is what we call drift.

Drift directly affects the accuracy of the system. For example, after
an hour of flight, an inertial system might show the aircraft one mile
away from where it truly is. After two hours, the error might be two
miles. This rate at which the position accuracy degrades over
time is known as the drift rate, and it depends entirely on the quality
of the sensors inside the system. High-precision laser or fiber-optic gyros
will have a very low drift rate, while older mechanical gyros accumulate
error much faster. In general, a modern inertial reference system will

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drift about half a nautical mile per hour, while older mechanical systems
can drift as much as two nautical miles per hour.

Difference Between INS and IRS

This brings us to the difference between the INS and the IRS. The older
Inertial Navigation System (INS) used mechanical gyroscopes and
accelerometers mounted on a stabilized platform. That platform was
kept level with the horizon and aligned with true north using torque
motors, so that even when the airplane changed pitch or heading, the
platform stayed fixed relative to the Earth. Because it used physical
gyros and moving parts, it was heavy, complex, and sensitive to small
mechanical imperfections. As a result, its drift rate was relatively high,
and its alignment time before flight was long.

IRS

The Inertial Reference System (IRS), on the other hand, is the modern
evolution of the INS. It replaces the mechanical gyros with laser or fiber-
optic gyroscopes, which have no moving parts. This eliminates much of
the friction and mechanical error that used to cause drift. The IRS is a so-
called “strapdown” system, meaning that the sensors are fixed directly
to the aircraft’s structure, and instead of mechanically keeping a
platform stable, the computer performs all the corrections
mathematically. This design makes the system lighter, faster, and far
more reliable. With no moving parts, there is very little wear, and the
typical drift rate drops to around 0.5 nautical miles per hour.

Alignment Process

Before the system can begin providing navigation and attitude

information, it must go through the alignment process. Alignment is the
procedure that allows the system to determine where “level” is and
where “north” is before the flight starts. When the aircraft is parked on
the ground, the only acceleration the sensors can detect is gravity. The
system uses this constant acceleration vector to mathematically align its
27
internal reference frame perpendicular to the Earth’s surface,
establishing what is truly level. Once that step is complete, the
gyroscopes detect the Earth’s rotation. Since the airplane is stationary,
any detected rotation can only be due to the planet itself. From that, the
system determines the direction of true north, and once it knows that, it
uses its internal magnetic variation database to calculate magnetic
north, which is the heading reference most flight instruments display.

The time it takes to complete the alignment depends mainly on two

factors: temperature and latitude. If the outside air temperature is very
low, it takes longer for the sensors to warm up and reach their ideal
operating temperature. At higher latitudes, near the poles, the rotation
of the Earth is more difficult to sense, so determining north also takes
longer. Near the equator, alignment is much faster. In most modern
aircraft, alignment typically takes between five and eighteen minutes.
Once alignment is complete, the system knows its initial position,
attitude, and heading, and from that point on, it can begin to provide
continuous, highly accurate navigation and attitude information to the
flight instruments, the flight management system, and all other systems
that depend on inertial data.

Main Components of the IRS

The heart of the system is the Inertial Reference Unit (IRU), which
contains:

 Three laser gyroscopes (for roll, pitch, and yaw rotation)

 Three accelerometers (for linear motion along each axis)

 A computer processor that integrates all measurements in real

time

The IRS also receives supporting data from other aircraft systems:

 Initial position (manual entry or from GNSS/FMS)

 Barometric altitude (from the Air Data Computer)

 True airspeed (for wind vector and groundspeed calculations)

Alignment Process

28
Before each flight, the Inertial Reference System must be aligned. This
alignment process allows the system to establish two fundamental
references: level and true north. To determine level, the IRS aligns its
accelerometers with the true horizon by detecting the Earth’s gravity
vector while the aircraft is stationary. Once level is established, the
gyroscopes detect the Earth’s rotation, allowing the system to
mathematically determine the direction of true north. From that
reference, the IRS computes magnetic north using its internal magnetic
variation database, which is periodically updated. The time required for
this process depends on environmental factors. In cold weather, the
sensors take longer to reach their proper operating temperature,
extending the alignment period, while at higher latitudes near the poles,
the slower apparent rate of Earth’s rotation makes it more difficult for
the gyros to detect direction, also increasing alignment time. Near the
equator, where the rotational rate is most easily detected, alignment is
faster. In general, modern systems require between five and eighteen
minutes to complete alignment.

System Integration

Once alignment is complete, the IRS begins to provide continuous data

to multiple onboard systems. Its outputs are fundamental to the
29
operation of the Primary Flight Display, the Navigation Display, and the
Flight Management System. It also feeds critical information to the
autopilot and flight director, the yaw damper, the weather radar, and
even to safety systems such as the anti-skid and auto-brake units. The
Flight Data Recorder also depends on IRS information to capture
accurate flight parameters. To ensure redundancy and accuracy, modern
aircraft are typically equipped with three independent IRS units. Each
one computes its own position and attitude independently, and the
Flight Management System compares all three to average the results
and eliminate any discrepancies, thereby increasing reliability and
system integrity.

Integration with Air Data Systems

When the Inertial Reference System is integrated with the Air Data
Computer, the combined unit is referred to as the Air Data and Inertial
Reference System, or ADIRS. This integration allows both air data and
inertial information to be processed and cross-verified, enhancing overall
precision. The ADIRS provides key flight parameters such as true
airspeed, groundspeed, wind direction and velocity, drift angle, and
vertical speed, as well as precise attitude and heading references. By
blending inertial and air data inputs, the aircraft gains a complete and
highly stable reference framework for both navigation and flight control
systems, ensuring consistent performance throughout all phases of
flight.

30
RNAV (Area Navigation)

RNAV (Area Navigation) is a method of navigation that allows an aircraft

to fly on any desired flight path within the coverage of ground-based or
space-based navigation aids (NAVAIDs), or within the limits of the
aircraft's self-contained navigation systems. It enables more direct
routes and flexible airspace use, without being limited to flying over
specific NAVAIDs (like VORs).

RNAV (Area Navigation) lets a plane fly almost any route it wants,
not just from one

radio station (like a VOR) to another.

Instead of flying in straight lines between ground-based navigation

points, RNAV lets the plane fly directly to invisible points in the
sky, called waypoints. These points are based on GPS or other
navigation systems inside the plane.

This makes flying: More direct, More efficient, Better for saving
time and fuel

You don’t need to fly over or near a navigation aid anymore. You can just
fly to any point that’s programmed in the system.

Purpose of RNAV

RNAV improves airspace efficiency by:

• Allowing direct routes between waypoints.

• Reducing fuel consumption and flight time.

• Improving traffic flow in congested areas.

• Supporting complex departure and arrival procedures (SIDs and

STARs).

31
RNAV is applied in en-route, terminal (SIDs and STARs) and
arrival/departure procedures. (no requirement for on-board
performance monitoring and alerting)

RNAV 10: for oceanic and remote navigation applications.

RNAV 5: for continental en-route navigation.

RNAV 2 / RNAV 1: for en-route/terminal navigation such as SIDs/STARs

Although RNAV does not mandate onboard monitoring, it still defines

performance in terms of accuracy, integrity, continuity, and
functionality, as set out in Doc 9613.
For example, RNAV 1 implies that the lateral navigation system must
maintain a specified bound (often 1 NM) 95% of the time.

RNAV 10

RNAV 10 (previously referred to as “RNP 10” in older terminology) is

designed for oceanic and remote continental navigation where
ground-based NAVAID coverage is unavailable. It does not require
onboard performance monitoring and alerting, which is the key
difference from RNP specifications.

According to ICAO Doc 9613, RNAV 10 operations are supported by

long-range navigation systems (LRNS) such as Inertial Navigation
Systems (INS), Inertial Reference Systems (IRS), Flight
Management Systems (FMS), or GNSS.

Aircraft must maintain a total system error within ±10 NM for 95% of
flight time.
This level of performance ensures adequate separation standards in
oceanic airspace where radar surveillance is limited or non-existent.

Operators must obtain operational authorization for RNAV 10 operations,

ensuring that equipment, training, and operational procedures meet
ICAO standards.

32
33
RNAV 5

RNAV 5 applies to en-route continental navigation in regions with

sufficient ground-based NAVAID coverage (e.g., VOR/DME or DME/DME
networks).
Like all RNAV specifications, it does not require onboard
performance monitoring and alerting.

RNAV 5 requires aircraft to maintain a lateral navigation accuracy of

±5 NM for at least 95% of flight time.
It may also apply to certain departure and arrival segments (SIDs
and STARs), depending on airspace design.

Acceptable sensors include GNSS, DME/DME, DME/DME + IRU, or

VOR/DME.
Air navigation service providers (ANSPs) must ensure sufficient NAVAID
coverage to support RNAV 5 routes, and operators must demonstrate
compliance through equipment capability and pilot training.

RNAV 2

RNAV 2 provides greater precision than RNAV 5 and is typically used

for en-route and terminal operations (transitions, arrivals, and
departures).
As with other RNAV types, it does not require onboard performance
monitoring and alerting. Aircraft operating under RNAV 2 must
maintain a navigation accuracy of ±2 NM for 95% of the flight
time.
The system may use GNSS, DME/DME, or DME/DME + IRU inputs,
depending on airspace infrastructure. RNAV 2 requirements including
equipment, operational procedures, and crew knowledge are detailed in
34
Doc 9613, Volume II, Part B, Chapter 3. In most regions, a single
operational approval covers both RNAV 1 and RNAV 2, as their
requirements overlap substantially.

RNAV 1

RNAV 1 represents the highest level of precision within the RNAV

family, mainly used in terminal areas, Standard Instrument
Departures (SIDs), and Standard Terminal Arrivals (STARs). As
with all RNAV specifications, it does not include onboard
performance monitoring and alerting (that’s required only for RNP).

Aircraft must achieve a lateral navigation accuracy of ±1 NM for at

least 95% of the flight time. Navigation may be based on GNSS,
DME/DME, or DME/DME + IRU, depending on infrastructure.

Because RNAV 1 and RNAV 2 share common system and crew

requirements, ICAO Doc 9613 allows a single operational approval to
cover both.
These operations require coordination between operators and ANSPs (Air
navigation services provider) to ensure route design and NAVAID
coverage are compatible with the intended performance level.

35
RNP (Required Navigation Performance)

RNP is a type of navigation specification within PBN that requires on-

board performance monitoring and alerting by the aircraft’s
navigation system.

In simpler terms: the aircraft must not only be able to navigate with a
defined accuracy, but it must also monitor its own performance
(accuracy, integrity, continuity, and functionality) and alert the crew if
the required performance isn’t being met.

Key Components of RNP

1. Accuracy: The navigation system must keep the total system

error (TSE) within the specified lateral (and sometimes vertical)
limit for at least 95 % of the flight time.

2. Integrity / Monitoring & Alerting: The system must monitor its

performance in real time, detect if performance falls below the
required threshold, and alert the crew when necessary. This is the
main difference between RNP and RNAV.

3. Continuity: The system must maintain the required performance

throughout the operation without unscheduled interruptions.

4. Functionality: The specification may include functional

requirements (e.g., ability to fly curved paths, offset routes,
specific turn types) depending on the application

In the PBN framework, RNP is one of the navigation specifications that

defines the acceptable navigation performance for an operation in a
defined airspace concept. The navigation specification for RNP sets out
the required performance (accuracy, integrity, continuity, functionality).
Which navigation sensors or systems can be used and what crew or
operational procedures must be in place

 Because RNP includes monitoring and alerting, systems meeting

an RNP specification are often labelled “RNP systems”.

This will result on a number of benefits like improved predictability

and repeatability of flight paths, which supports tighter route spacing

36
and more efficient use of airspace. The ability to design procedures with
curved flight paths (RF-legs), offsets

and optimized trajectories when required. (Especially in advanced RNP

or RNP AR applications) as well as reduced dependency on ground-based
navigation aids, increasing flexibility of route and procedure design.

Operational, Certification, and Limitation Considerations for RNP

RNP operations require specific operational approval from the State of

the Operator and, where applicable, from the State of the Aircraft
Registry. This approval ensures that the aircraft systems, operating
procedures, and flight crew training meet the performance, monitoring,
and alerting standards defined in the relevant RNP specification (such as
RNP 4, RNP 2, RNP 1, RNP APCH, or RNP AR APCH).

To obtain operational approval, the operator must demonstrate:

 Equipment compliance – The aircraft must be fitted with

certified navigation systems capable of continuous performance
monitoring and alerting. Merely achieving the required accuracy is
not sufficient; the system must detect and alert any loss of
integrity.

 Crew training and procedures – Pilots must be trained to

understand the meaning of RNP alerts, system limitations,
contingency procedures, and reversion modes. Operational
documentation must reflect these procedures clearly.

 Maintenance and configuration control – The aircraft’s

navigation systems must be maintained under a controlled
program ensuring that hardware and software versions remain
compliant with approved configurations.

Each specific RNP specification must be approved independently. For

example, approval for RNP 1 does not automatically authorize RNP AR
APCH, which demands additional functionality such as RF-legs (radius-to-
fix turns), increased database integrity, and enhanced training.

37
Limitations and Factors to Consider

Despite the increased capability and flexibility of RNP, several

operational and technical factors must be considered:

 Dependence on navigation infrastructure: RNP operations

often rely heavily on GNSS. If GNSS signal degradation, jamming,
or spoofing occurs, or if augmentation systems such as SBAS or
GBAS are unavailable, the navigation performance may no longer
meet RNP requirements.

 Continuity and availability: The navigation system must

maintain the required accuracy and integrity for the entire
operation. Interruptions (loss of satellite coverage, database
errors, or power interruptions) can render an RNP approach or
route temporarily unusable.

 Alerting and reversion procedures: The crew must be aware of

what to do when receiving an integrity alert or when the
navigation system reverts to a non-monitored mode. This includes
coordination with ATC and reversion to alternative navigation (e.g.,
VOR/DME).

 Environmental and interference considerations: Signal

reflection, multipath effects, or terrain masking can temporarily
degrade position accuracy, especially during terminal and
approach phases.

 Infrastructure limitations: Although RNP is designed to reduce

dependency on ground-based aids, its use is still constrained by
airspace design, obstacle clearance requirements, and ATC
surveillance coverage.

38
RNP Navigation Specifications

RNP 4

RNP 4 is intended for oceanic and remote continental navigation

applications, providing greater precision than RNAV 10.
Aircraft must maintain a total system error within ±4 NM for 95% of
flight time.
It requires onboard performance monitoring and alerting, allowing
the flight crew to be continuously aware of the aircraft’s actual
navigation performance.

Typical sensors: GNSS (as the primary sensor), potentially supported

by INS/IRS for short-term accuracy maintenance.

Example:

The IRS (Inertial Reference System) (those ring laser gyros), they start
from a known position and with time their accuracy degrades. Yet there
is no alert made to the pilots; we don't know how accurate the system or
the navigation is. This is an RNAV system. Then, RAIM or SBAS When the
signal is lost or the accuracy deteriorates, it gives you a notification:
This is an RNP.

Operational context: RNP 4 is widely used in oceanic regions such as

the North Pacific (NOPAC) and South Pacific (SOPAC), enabling
reduced lateral separation standards (30 NM lateral and longitudinal
spacing).
Authorization: Operators must obtain RNP 4 approval, demonstrating
39
equipment compliance, training, and procedures per ICAO Doc 9613 Vol
II, Part B, Chapter 5.

RNP 2

RNP 2 is designed for en-route and terminal operations where higher

accuracy is required compared to RNAV 2.
Aircraft must maintain a navigation accuracy of ±2 NM for 95% of
flight time, with onboard monitoring and alerting.

Sensors: GNSS, sometimes combined with DME/DME or IRS for

redundancy.
Applications: RNP 2 can be used in both domestic en-route airspace
and remote continental or oceanic routes.
It provides safety benefits by allowing reduced separation minima,
increased route density, and more efficient airspace use.
Approval requirements include compliance with equipment standards
(e.g., GNSS TSO-C145/C146), crew training, and adherence to
procedures outlined in Doc 9613 Vol II, Part B, Chapter 6.

RNP 1

RNP 1 applies to terminal operations, specifically Standard

Instrument Departures (SIDs) and Standard Terminal Arrivals
(STARs) in controlled airspace.
It demands a lateral navigation accuracy of ±1 NM for 95% of
flight time, with continuous performance monitoring and alerting.

Sensors: GNSS is the preferred means of compliance; DME/DME with

IRS support may also be used if accuracy and monitoring can be
maintained.
Operational benefits: Enables more precise routing in congested
terminal areas, reduced vectoring by ATC, and efficient noise-abatement
paths.
Authorization: Operators must meet the RNP 1 requirements in Doc
9613 Vol II, Part B, Chapter 7, including appropriate equipment,
database integrity, and pilot training.

40
RNP APCH (Approach)

RNP APCH refers to approach procedures with lateral and vertical

guidance, supporting minima typically to a Decision Altitude (DA).
This specification is used for approaches down to LNAV, LNAV/VNAV,
and LPV minima, depending on equipment and augmentation system
(e.g., SBAS or Baro-VNAV).

Accuracy: ±1 NM or better near the initial approach segment,

tightening progressively toward the runway (typically 0.3 NM near the
final approach fix).
Sensors: GNSS-based, with augmentation via SBAS or Baro-VNAV
systems.
Monitoring: Onboard alerting ensures the aircraft maintains the
required integrity and performance.
Reference: ICAO Doc 9613 Vol II, Part C, Chapter 1.
RNP APCH procedures are often published as RNAV (GNSS) approaches
on charts, with minima labeled LNAV, LNAV/VNAV, and LPV.

RNP AR APCH (Authorization Required Approach)

RNP AR APCH (Authorization Required) represents the most advanced

and demanding form of RNP operations, used where challenging
terrain or airspace restrictions require curved or highly constrained
approach paths.
These procedures allow lower minima than standard RNP APCH, in
some cases comparable to CAT I ILS.

Accuracy: As low as ±0.3 NM or less, potentially down to 0.1 NM,

depending on the design and operator approval.
Monitoring: Continuous onboard performance monitoring and alerting
are mandatory.
Additional requirements:

 Special crew training and recurrent proficiency checks.

41
  Aircraft must have advanced FMS capable of curved (RF) legs.

 Operator must obtain specific authorization (AR) from the State

of the Operator and State of the Aerodrome.

Operational advantages: Enables access to airports with difficult

terrain or limited ground infrastructure, examples include Innsbruck
(LOWI) or Queenstown (NZQN).
Reference: ICAO Doc 9613 Vol II, Part C, Chapter 2.

Waypoint Types

Waypoints define the geometry of the RNAV or RNP route. There are two
primary waypoint types and several leg types that describe how the
aircraft transitions between them.

a) Fly-By Waypoints

 The aircraft anticipates the turn before reaching the waypoint.

 Provides a smooth, continuous track with no overshoot.

 Used in most RNAV and RNP procedures.

 Defined in ICAO Doc 8168 as the preferred waypoint type for

modern procedures due to efficiency and stability.

b) Fly-Over Waypoints

 The aircraft must cross the waypoint before initiating the turn.

 Used when precise overflight of the point is required (e.g., noise

abatement, airspace constraints, or visual alignment).

 Increases track deviation and workload; therefore, used sparingly.

c) RF Legs (Radius-to-Fix Legs)

 A curved path defined by a radius and arc center point between

two fixes.

 Used for continuous curved segments typically in RNP AR APCH

procedures.

 Requires FMS capability to compute and fly a precise arc using

radius and turn geometry.

 Enhances terrain and obstacle avoidance in complex environments

(mountainous or high-density areas).

42
Other Leg Types (Per ICAO PBN Coding)

 TF (Track to Fix): Straight-line segment between two fixes on a

specified track.

 CF (Course to Fix): Course-based leg ending at a fix,

independent of starting position.

 DF (Direct to Fix): Direct course from present position to a

specified waypoint.

 AF (Arc to Fix): DME arc or equivalent GNSS arc path.

 RF (Radius to Fix): Constant-radius turn (as noted above).

These leg types are coded into the navigation database following ARINC
424 standards, ensuring identical behavior across avionics platforms.

Vertical Protection

In procedures with vertical guidance (LNAV/VNAV or LPV), the vertical

path is defined by a glide path angle (GPA), typically between 3.0°–
3.5°, and Vertical Error Tolerance (VET) ensures clearance above
obstacles along the descent path.

Coding and Validation in Navigation Databases

ARINC 424 Data Coding

All RNAV and RNP procedures are encoded according to ARINC 424, a
global standard ensuring that avionics interpret waypoints, leg types,
and altitude constraints consistently.
Each procedure entry includes:

 Waypoint coordinates (latitude, longitude).

 Leg type (TF, CF, RF, etc.).

 Course, altitude constraints, and speed limits.

 Magnetic variation reference.

b) Data Validation

Procedure designers and avionics database suppliers perform two

levels of validation: Procedure Design Validation: Ensures that the
43
geometry, fix placement, obstacle clearance, and coding match ICAO
design criteria. Database Validation: Confirms that the ARINC 424
coding matches the published chart exactly (Jeppesen or national AIP).

c) Periodic Updates

 Databases are updated every AIRAC cycle (28 days).

 Pilots must verify database currency before use (ICAO Annex 6).

 Discrepancies must be reported through NOTAMs or data integrity

alerts.

Precision Approaches

A Precision Approach is an instrument approach procedure using both

lateral and vertical guidance which meets the precision approach and
landing operation requirements such as the most common one, the ILS
or Instrument Landing System, which broadcasts two lobe signals in both
azimuth as well as the vertical path to help guide the aircraft down to
the threshold.

Also, we have MLS (Microlanding System), not in use anymore but in

service. That is also PIR or the Precision Approach Radar, usually used by
the military, though civilians may also use it. And last but not least, the
newest GLS or GBAS Landing System.

MLS
PIR

44
 GLS

PRECISION APPROACH SYSTEMS

Instrument Landing System (ILS)

The ILS is the primary and most widely used precision approach system
in the world. It uses VHF and UHF radio beams transmitted from the
runway area.

“ILS” stands for Instrument Landing System.

 “I” = Instrument — because it’s used in Instrument

Meteorological Conditions (IMC), when the pilot cannot rely on
outside visual cues.

 “L” = Landing — its purpose is to guide the aircraft precisely to a

safe landing.

 “S” = System — because it’s made up of multiple components

(transmitters, antennas, cockpit receivers, and indicators).

Components

 Localizer (LOC): Provides lateral guidance, keeps aircraft aligned

with the runway centerline.

 Glide Slope (GS): Provides vertical guidance, a fixed descent

path (usually 3°).

 Marker Beacons or DME: Provide distance-to-threshold

information.

 Approach Lighting System (ALS)

45
Aircraft Equipment Requirements

To fly an ILS approach, the aircraft must be equipped with a certified

ILS receiver capable of interpreting the transmitted radio signals.

Those signals must be displayed on cockpit instruments (such as the

ADI, HSI, or PFD) to show:

Lateral deviation (from the Localizer), and

Vertical deviation (from the Glide Slope).

- The pilot must also have the corresponding ILS approach chart,
which includes:
- The ILS frequency and identification code (in Morse code).
- The inbound course (Localizer track).
- The Glide Slope angle (typically 3°).
- The minimum descent altitude / height (MDA / DA)
depending on ILS category (CAT I, II, or III).
- The missed approach (go-around) procedure.

Without these, an ILS approach cannot be flown legally or safely.

Ground-Based System Overview

The ILS is made up of two main antenna systems, both transmitting

signals on a single tunable frequency:

 The Localizer (LOC) — provides horizontal (lateral) guidance.

 The Glide Slope (GS) — provides vertical guidance.

Localizer: Lateral Guidance

The Localizer antenna is normally located beyond the far end of the
runway (opposite the approach direction). It consists of several pairs of
directional antennas transmitting VHF signals that form two
overlapping lobes along the runway’s horizontal axis.

The left-hand side of the runway emits a 90 Hz–modulated signal.

The right-hand side emits a 150 Hz–modulated signal.

The aircraft’s receiver compares the two.

46
  If both signals are equal → aircraft is on the centerline.

 If one is stronger → aircraft is offset left or right.

Localizer Identification (Morse Code)

Because the ILS frequency range is limited (108.10–111.95 MHz),

there’s a chance you might tune into the wrong ILS for example, one
from a nearby airport using a similar frequency.

To prevent this, Each ILS transmits a unique Morse code identifier

(e.g. “IJFK” for John F. Kennedy Intl. RWY 04R = India-Juliet-Foxtrot-Kilo)
and pilots must listen to the Morse code tone through the NAV receiver
and verify it matches the one printed on the approach chart.

Modern avionics auto-identify it on-screen, but verification remains

standard procedure.

ILS Unique Morse Code Identifier (IMWX)

Glide Slope: Vertical Guidance

The Glide Slope antenna is positioned beside the runway, near the
touchdown zone, typically about 300 meters from the threshold. It
works the same way as the Localizer but in the vertical plane. It emits
two UHF signals (90 Hz and 150 Hz) arranged vertically.

47
How It Works

 The aircraft receiver measures the relative strength of both

signals.

 When they are equal, the aircraft is on the correct glide path
(usually 3°).

 The glide slope defines the ideal descent angle to the

touchdown point.

Why 3°? A 3° glide path provides a stable descent rate (~700–750

ft/min at typical approach speeds). Enough time to adjust power and
configuration and compatibility with

Special Glide Slopes

Some airports have steeper glide slopes due to terrain or obstacle

constraints.

Steepest published ILS in the world: London City (EGLC) – 5.5°).

48
 Distance Information: Markers and DME

Knowing your distance from the threshold is essential for: Speed

control, Descent planning, and Cross-checking altitude vs.
distance.

Originally, ILS installations included three Marker Beacons:

1. Outer Marker (OM) – blue light; indicates FAF (Final Approach

Fix).

2. Middle Marker (MM) – amber light; near DA point.

3. Inner Marker (IM) – white light; for CAT II/III operations close to
threshold.

As you pass each marker, your receiver flashes the corresponding light
and produces a distinct audio tone (Morse-like pattern).

Modern Replacement: DME

Marker beacons are mostly phased out and modern ILS often includes
DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) integrated into the ILS
frequency, this provides slant range distance directly to threshold. If
the ILS ID begins with a “D” (e.g. D-IJFK), it means ILS/DME is
installed.

Categories Recap

Categor Guidance Decision Height Runway Visual Range

y Provided (DH) (RVR)

CAT I LOC + GS ≥ 200 ft ≥ 550 m

CAT II LOC + GS 100–199 ft ≥ 350 m

CAT IIIA LOC + GS < 100 ft ≥ 200 m

CAT IIIB LOC + GS < 50 ft ≥ 75 m

CAT IIIC LOC + GS 0 ft (no DH) No RVR limit (not

49
Categor Guidance Decision Height Runway Visual Range
y Provided (DH) (RVR)

operational)

GLS — GBAS Landing System

The GBAS Landing System (GLS) is an ICAO-recognized precision

approach system that uses the Ground-Based Augmentation
System (GBAS) to provide high-accuracy, differential corrections
to GNSS signals in the terminal area of an airport.

In simple terms, GLS is the GNSS-based equivalent of an ILS,

providing both lateral and vertical precision guidance to the runway
but instead of localizer and glide slope antennas, it relies on a single
ground station transmitting data corrections to the aircraft via VHF
data link.

GLS serves the same operational role as the Instrument Landing

System (ILS) guiding aircraft precisely to the runway threshold, but
50
with several technical and operational advantages. While ILS depends on
radio beams transmitted from antennas aligned with a single runway,
GLS depends on GNSS satellite positioning, locally corrected by a
GBAS ground station.

These corrections allow the aircraft to compute its precise position and
follow a geometrically defined approach path, typically three
degrees in descent, with accuracy equivalent to ILS Category I, II, or
III approaches.

PAR — Precision Approach Radar

Precision Approach Radar (PAR) is a ground-controlled precision

approach in which Air Traffic Control (ATC) monitors your aircraft on
radar and provides continuous heading and altitude instructions by
radio throughout the entire approach. It offers vertical and lateral
guidance, much like an ILS, and also includes range information,
making it the most precise radar approach available.

During a PAR approach, ATC observes both a horizontal (azimuth)

and vertical (elevation) radar display. These show your position
relative to the runway centerline and the proper glide path, normally
between 2.5° and 3° and the controller gives real-time corrections such
as “slightly right of centerline” or “on glide path, maintain rate of
descent.”
Unlike ILS or GLS, there are no navigation indications in the cockpit;

51
you must rely entirely on attitude, heading, vertical speed, and
altitude instruments while following ATC’s verbal guidance.

A unique advantage of the PAR system is that it allows no-gyro

approaches. If your directional gyro fails, ATC will simply instruct you
when to begin and stop turns, assuming standard-rate turns. This makes
PAR especially useful for emergencies or training.

PAR approaches are published in the FAA Terminal Procedures

Publication (TPP) and Jeppesen charts, usually listed under “Radar
Minimums,” showing Decision Altitude (DA), Height Above
Touchdown (HAT), and required visibility.
Equipment requirements are minimal only a functioning radio and
flight instruments are needed. Before flying, it’s important to brief
lost-communications procedures with ATC to ensure both sides know
what actions to take if radio contact is lost.

Although PAR provides true precision guidance, it is not widely

available it is mainly installed at military or joint-use airfields,
where it serves both operational and training purposes. Whenever you
have a chance to fly one, it’s an excellent way to sharpen instrument
flying skills and practice precise control without relying on onboard
navigation aids.

Approaches with Vertical Guidance (APV)

52
After studying Precision Approaches (PA) such as the ILS, GLS, and
PAR, we now move to the next category of instrument approaches, the
Approaches with Vertical Guidance (APV).

These procedures are functionally similar to Precision Approaches,

as they provide both lateral and vertical guidance, and pilots fly
them using nearly identical techniques. However, APV approaches do
not meet ICAO’s certification criteria to be considered Precision
Approaches, since their vertical guidance is not derived from a ground-
based precision system. Instead, they rely on space- or baro-based
navigation sources.

APV procedures therefore serve as a bridge between true Precision

Approaches (like ILS) and Non-Precision Approaches (like VOR or LNAV).
They allow stabilized descent paths and increased accuracy without
requiring expensive ground infrastructure.

Each APV approach uses a Decision Altitude (DA) rather than a

Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA), just like a precision approach. At the
DA, the pilot must decide whether to continue the approach or
execute a missed approach.

Common
LPV MinimumsAPV Types

The two most common APV procedures in modern aviation are:

LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance)

LNAV/VNAV (Lateral Navigation / Vertical Navigation)

Both are GNSS-based approaches that use space-based navigation

rather than ground transmitters.

LPV – Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance

The LPV approach is the most accurate APV, using WAAS (Wide Area
Augmentation System) or other SBAS systems to enhance GPS precision
and integrity.
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If your GPS is not WAAS-equipped, LPV approaches will not appear
on your CDI because WAAS capability is required to provide the scaling
and vertical guidance unique to LPV.

Let’s visualize it: The LPV course scales, or “tapers,” to become more
precise as the aircraft approaches the runway. The lateral guidance
narrows near the threshold, and the vertical guidance becomes sharper
similar to the glide slope of an ILS. This allows decision altitudes as low
as 200 feet AGL, nearly identical to a Category I ILS.

LPV approaches use WAAS and in fact, require WAAS, Why LPV
Requires WAAS? If the G.P.S. is not WAAS equipped LPV approaches will
not be displayed on your CDI.

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And you see an example here of the LPV being displayed on the CDI,
that tells me this aircraft has the WAAS capability to give me that scale
“taper” required for an LPV approach.

LNAV/VNAV – Lateral and Vertical Navigation

The LNAV/VNAV approach also provides vertical guidance, but it is

generated differently: It may come from Baro-VNAV (using the aircraft’s
barometric altimeter) or SBAS vertical navigation. It does not have
the same tapering precision as LPV, both the lateral and vertical paths
remain constant throughout the approach. As a result, its minimums
are slightly higher, typically around 250–350 feet AGL.

An aircraft may fly LNAV/VNAV if it is equipped with WAAS, or if it has

Baro-VNAV capability with a certified air data computer and
altimeter system.

LNAV/VNAV approaches were actually the first type of GPS approach that
had vertical guidance. They were originally designed for baro-aided GPS
units, but most WAAS receivers can use them today as well.

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What's The Difference Between LPV and LNAV/VNAV
Approaches?

The LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance) and

LNAV/VNAV (Lateral Navigation/Vertical Navigation) approaches
are both classified as Approaches with Vertical Guidance (APV),
meaning they provide both lateral and vertical guidance to the pilot.
However, there are key differences between them. The LPV approach is
the most precise of the two because it is based on WAAS (Wide Area
Augmentation System), which enhances GPS accuracy and integrity.
This allows the guidance to taper, or narrow, both laterally and
vertically as the aircraft gets closer to the runway, very similar to an ILS

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glidepath. As a result, LPV approaches can achieve decision altitudes
as low as 200 feet AGL, nearly equivalent to a Category I ILS.

On the other hand, the LNAV/VNAV approach provides vertical

guidance as well, but it is derived either from Baro-VNAV (using the
aircraft’s barometric altimeter) or from SBAS systems without the same
geometric precision. Unlike the LPV, the LNAV/VNAV path does not
taper as the aircraft approaches the runway; its lateral and vertical
guidance remain constant throughout the descent. Because of this,
LNAV/VNAV approaches are slightly less precise and typically have
higher minimums, usually around 250 to 350 feet AGL.

While both procedures belong to the APV category and offer vertical
guidance, LPV provides a more accurate, ILS-like glidepath using
WAAS, whereas LNAV/VNAV relies on barometric or standard
GNSS data, offering a smoother but less precise descent profile.

Both are GPS-based (not dependent on ground equipment) and use a

Decision Altitude (DA) like a precision approach but do NOT meet
ICAO Annex 10 precision standards, so they remain classified as
APV instead of Precision Approaches.

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