1. What are the different types of shallow foundations?
● Isolated footing
○ Flat
○ Stepped
○ Sloped
● Combined footing
● Strap Footing
● Wall footing
2. What are the different conditions in which we design combined footings?
I. When a column is being built that is next to the property line but the footing is not
being extended ahead of the property line.
II. When it is necessary to distribute the weight of the building uniformly to the
ground below, we can design a combined footing.
III. A combined footing is employed when the load-bearing capability of the soil is
low and the area needed is more than that under the individual footing.
IV. When there is a chance of differential settlement, combined footing can be
employed to reduce differential settlement.
V. Any other situations where the area required for footings of nearby columns
overlaps, we design a combined footing.
3. Describe the procedure of designing a combined footing?
Combined footings are to be designed such that the pressure due to loads is less than
SBC of soil and the footing is structurally safe against bending and shear. These are the
steps to be followed for combined footing design.
A. Find the area of footing such that pressure due to service loads including self
weights and soil weight are less than the gross SBC of soil.
B. Place the footing such that the centroid of footing and centroid of loads coincide.
This may result in trapezoidal footing also.
C. Find the factored load and factored base pressure to check for shear and
bending in the footing. If the centroid of foundation and load matches, then base
pressure will be uniform throughout the foundation.
D. Check for punching shear around both columns in a region ‘d/2’ distance away
from the face of the footing. Shown as dotted in the below figure.
E. Find the bending moment at the face of the columns at four locations indicated by
1,2,5,6 in the above figure. Maximum negative moment is to be found at location
where shear is 0.
F. Check for one way shear at d distance from face of the column. (refer 3,4 in the
figure).
G. Reinforcement corresponding to bending moments in the diagram shall be
provided along longitudinal direction. The flexural reinforcement in the
longitudinal direction is designed for the ‘positive’ moment at the face of the
column and the maximum ‘negative’ moment between the columns; the
reinforcement is placed at the bottom in the case of the former, and at top in the
case of latter
4. What are the objectives of earthquake-resistant design of reinforced concrete
structures?
The objective of earthquake-resistant RCC structures are to:
● structures should be able to resist minor earthquakes without damage
● structures should be able to resist moderate earthquakes without significant
structural damage, but with some nonstructural damage; and
● structures should be able to resist major earthquakes without collapse, but with
some structural and nonstructural damage.
5. What are the objectives behind the special detailing provisions in IS 13920?
The Indian Standard IS13920 (Ductile Detailing Of Reinforced Concrete Structures
Subjected To Seismic Forces) was introduced with an objective to ensure adequate
toughness and ductility (with ability to undergo large inelastic reversible deformations) for
individual members such as beams, columns and walls and their connections, and to
prevent other non-ductile types of failure.
In order to maintain overall ductile behaviour of the structure with minimal damage, it
becomes necessary to achieve, in relative terms, combinations of
● strong foundations and weak superstructure;
● members stronger in shear than in flexure; and
● strong columns, and beams with little over-strength
6. Distinguish between ordinary moment resisting frame (OMRF) and special
moment resisting frame (SMRF)
OMRF and SMRF are two methods of designing and detailing RCC framed structures.
OMRF SMRF
Ordinary Moment Resisting Frame Special Moment resisting frame
Design and detailing as per IS 456 Design and detailing as per IS 456 and IS
13920
Beam columns joints are assumed to be rigid Beam column joints are detailed for ductile
behavior and can exhibit great rotation.
Structure as an overall have very less ductility Structure as overall have high degree of
ductility
There is less probability of formation of Structure is designed to form hinges and
hinges exhibit progressive collapse.
Poor performance during earthquakes Very good performance during earthquakes
and recommended for regions of high
probability of earthquakes.
7. What are the design requirements of beam-column joints?
● Beam column joints must be able to undergo large inelastic rotations in the event
of a severe earthquake and must be able to withstand large shear forces.
● Special confining reinforcements (stirrups/ties at closer spacing) must be
provided at beam column joints
● Beam column must have higher strength than beams (stong column=weak
beam)
● Extreme care must be done in detailing beam column joint as there will be huge
number of reinforcement at that location (column reinforcements and multiple
beam reinforcements)
8. What is meant by special confining reinforcement in columns of ductile frames?
These are special links provided in columns at beam column joints and near foundation to
increase the ductility of the column.
9. Differentiate between short term and long term deflections?
Short-term deflection refers to the immediate deflection after casting and application of
partial or full service loads, while the long-term deflection occurs over a long period of
time largely due to shrinkage and creep of the materials
Short term deflections depends upon
● magnitude and distribution of live loads,
● span and type of end supports,
● cross-sectional area of the members,
● amount of steel reinforcement and the stress developed in the reinforcement,
● characteristic strengths of concrete and steel, and
● amount and extent of cracking
Long term deflections depends upon
● Humidity and temperature ranges during curing,
● age of concrete at the time of loading, and
● type and size of aggregates, water-cement ratio, amount of compression
reinforcement, size of members etc., which influences the creep and shrinkage of
concrete.
Long term deflections are normally 2-3 times short term deflections.
10. Why code limit the deflection of flexural members? What are the limits of
deflection prescribed by code?
Factors that are involved in prescribing deflection limit to column are:
● aesthetic/psychological discomfort;
● crack-width limitation (limiting deflection is an indirect way of limiting
crackwidths);
● effect on attached structural and non-structural elements (brittle materials like
glass may break in small deflections);
● ponding in (roof) slabs
Code prescribes two limits for deflection
A. span/250 - final deflection for all loads including long term deflection due to creep
and shrinkage
B. Lower of span/350 or 20mm - the deflection (including long term) after
construction of partitions and finishes. This limit is aimed at preventing damages
to partitions and finishes.
Note that all deflections are to be calculated for service loads (characteristic loads) and
not service loads.