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Research Notes

Nursing Research (Kenya Medical Training College)

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TABLE OF CONTENT
1.1 DEFINITIONS 7
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH 8
1.3 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH 8
1.4 IMPORTANCE/GOALS OF NURSING RESEARCH 9
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 10
NURSING RESEARCH TERMINOLOGIES 11
2.0 TYPES OF RESEARCH 15
2.6 ETHICAL ISSUES IN NURSING RESEARCH 20
Problem-solving process 24
Nursing process 24
Research process 24

3.0 RESEARCH PROCESS 27

3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 Steps in Research Process 28
3.3 Identifying Research Problems 28
3.3.1 Steps 28
3.3.2 What is a Researchable problem? 28
3.3.3 Certain factors determine the scope of a research study 29
3.3.4 Ways of identifying a speci昀椀c research problem 29
3.3.5 Stating the problem 30
3.3.6 Characteristics of a good problem statement 30
3.4.1 Criteria for a good purpose statement 31
3.5.1 Speci昀椀c objectives 32
3.6 Formulating hypotheses 32
3.6.1 Purposes of Hypothesis 32
3.6.2 Characteristics of a good hypothesis 33

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[Link] Null hypothesis 32

VARIABLES 35
4.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 40
4.1 PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW 40
4.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DOING LITERATURE 41
4.3 SCOPE OF LITERATURE REVIEW 41
4.4 TIPS ON GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW 41
4.5 STEPS OF LITERATURE REVIEW 42
SOURCES OF LITERATURE 43

5.0 METHODOLOGY 47
5.1 RESEARCH DESIGN 47
5.2 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING METHODS 47
5.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES 48

5.4 MEASUREMENT LEVELS AND TOOLS USED IN DATA COLLECTION 52

5.5 INSTRUMENTS IN RESEARCH 54
5.6 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN RESEARCH 60
5.6.1 RELIABILITY 60
5.6.2 VALIDITY 62
5.6.3 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY 64
5.7 COMMON EFFECTS TO THE RESEARCH PROCESS 68
5.8 CONDUCTING A PRETEST/PILOT STUDY 69
5.9 DATA COLLECTION 71
6.0 WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 75
6.1 TYPES OF PROPOSALS 75
6.2 COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 76
7.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION 79
7.1 QUALITATIVE DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 79

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7.2QUANTITATIVE DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 80

8.0 COMMUNICATING THE RESEARCH FINDINGS 87

8.1 PRESENTING RESEARCH RESULTS AT PROFESSIONAL CONFERENCES 87
8.2 PRESENTING A RESEARCH PAPER 89

8.3 PRESENTING A RESEARCH POSTER 89

9.0 PUBLICATION OF A JOURNAL ARTICLE 90
9.1 PREPARING THE ARTICLE 90
9.2 SELECTING A JOURNAL 91
9.3 SENDING QUERY LETTERS 91
9.4 REASONS FOR REJECTION OF THE MANUSCRIPT 91
10.0 UTILIZATION OF NURSING RESEARCH FINDINGS 92
11.0 THE ROLE OF THE NURSES IN RESEARCH 93
12.0 WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS 95
REFFERENCES 101

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Research:-

The word research means “to search again” or to “to examine carefully”.

Research is a diligent, systemic inquiry or study to validate and re昀椀ne

existing knowledge and develop new knowledge

Nursing Research – is a scienti昀椀c process that validates and re昀椀nes existing

knowledge and generates new knowledge that directly and indirectly
in昀氀uences nursing practice.

Purpose of Research In Nursing:-

Broad:-

⮚ To improve the practice of its members so that the services provided

to clientele will have the greatest impact.

Speci昀椀c:-

⮚ Develop scienti昀椀c, evidence based reasons for nursing activities.

⮚ Finding ways of increasing the cost – e昀昀ectiveness of nursing activities.

⮚ Providing the basis for standards setting and quality assurance.

⮚ Providing evidence in support of demands for resources in nursing.

⮚ Defending a professional status for nursing.

⮚ Focusing on priority problems that a昀昀ect the nursing profession.

OBJECTIVES
The student should be able to demonstrate knowledge in research: -

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. The student will be able to describe the concept of Research and its
application in Nursing
2. The research methodology
3. Be able to demonstrate knowledge in writing research proposals

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4. Be able to participate in research and publication of 昀椀nding in local,

regional and international journals.
a) De昀椀nition of Research
b) Research de昀椀nition in nursing profession
c) Characteristics of research
d) Purposes of research research-describe, discover, control
and enable interpretation of an events
e) Importance/goals of nursing research
▪ Evidence based practice

▪ Credibility

▪ Accountability for nursing practice

▪ Documentation of cost e昀昀ectiveness of the nursing

practice

▪ Providing the basis for standard and quality assurance

f) Sources of knowledge
✔ Previous research

✔ Experience

✔ Tradition

✔ Authority

✔ Intuition –The ability to gain knowledge

g) De昀椀nition of terminologies:-
✔ Sample

✔ Data

✔ Variable e.g. .age, weight, size

✔ Hypothesis

✔ Population

✔ abstract

✔ External validity

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✔ Visibility

✔ Quantitative variables

✔ Independent variable

Note:-
❖ The ability to conduct research is becoming an ever important skill

❖ The ultimate purpose of nursing is to provide high quality patient

case
❖ Clinical practice without research is practice based on tradition
without validation
❖ Research is needed to evaluate the e昀昀ectiveness of nursing
treatment to determine the impact of nursing care on the health of
the patients or the test out theory
❖ Nursing practice is undergoing tremendous challenges. In order to
meet social challenges and needs, nursing practice must be
research based
❖ Research in nursing evolved predominantly when nursing education
became a part of higher education and was seeking its own body of
knowledge, di昀昀erent from that of medicine. Nursing is 昀椀rst

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researchers were being prepared in 昀椀elds other than nursing and

have brought to nursing the various paradigms from those 昀椀elds.

1.1 DEFINITIONS

1.1.1 Research:

❖ Is a systematic inquiry or critical examination of a given phenomenon

which is reported in a form that allows the research methods and
outcomes to be accessible to others.

1.1.2 Phenomenon:

❖ An event or a situation that can be seen to happen or exist.

1.1.3 Research:

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❖ Can also be de昀椀ned as a process of arriving at e昀昀ective solution to

problems through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of
data.

1.1.4 Nursing Research:

❖ Is de昀椀ned as the application of scienti昀椀c inquiry to the phenomenon of

concern to nursing. The systematic investigation of patients and their
health experiences is the primary concern of nursing.

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

⮚ Is always directed towards the solution of a problem

⮚ Always based on empirical and observational evidence

⮚ Research involves precise observation and accurate description

⮚ It emphasis the development of theories, principles and

generalizations

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⮚ It is characterized by systematic, objective and logical procedures

⮚ It is marked by patience, courage and unhurried activities

⮚ It requires that the researcher has full experience of the problem

being studied
⮚ It is replicable

⮚ It uses systematic method of problem solving

⮚ In research the factors which are not under study are controlled

⮚ It requires full skill of writing report

1.3 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

1.3.1 Exploratory
⮚ To generate many ideas/new knowledge

⮚ To develop tentative theories and conjectures

⮚ To formulate questions

⮚ To re昀椀ne issues for future research

1.3.2 Description
⮚ Describes a process, mechanism or relationship or a
phenomenon
⮚ Involves thorough description e.g in terms of size, age, shape,
weight, colour e.t.c.
⮚ Presents basic background information or a content

⮚ Often uses a survey research

1.3.3 Prediction
⮚ Enables prediction i.e. ability to estimate an event or a situation
e.g. knowledge about the relative movement of the moon, earth

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and sun helps us predict the accuracy, the occurrence of lunar

eclipse.

1.3.4 Analytical (or explanatory)

⮚ Goes beyond simple description. It involves accurate observation

and measurement of a given phenomenon
⮚ Involves theory testing on elaboration of a theory

⮚ Used mostly in basic research

1.3.5 Evaluation

⮚ Characterized by the focus on collecting data to ascertain the

e昀昀orts of same of planned change
⮚ Used in applied research to evaluate a policy in initiative or
social programme to determine if its working
⮚ Can be small or large scale e.g. e昀昀ectiveness of a crime
prevention programme in a local housing estate.

1.3.6 Control

⮚ It enables control i.e. the ability to regulate the phenomenon

under study
⮚ Many scienti昀椀c experiments are designed to achieve this
objectives

1.3.7 Theory development

⮚ Involves formulating concepts, law and generalizations about a

given phenomenon
1.4 IMPORTANCE/GOALS OF NURSING RESEARCH

1.4.1 Evidence based practice

⮚ The aim of evidence based practice is to provide the best

possible care based on the best available research care given to
patients is based on accurate and current information

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1.4.2 Credibility of the nursing profession

⮚ In the past, nursing was taken as a vocation rather than a

profession one of the criteria of a profession is the existence of a
body of knowledge that is distinct from that of others
▪ The most valid means of developing this
knowledge base is through research. Nurses must
demonstrate to the general public that nursing
plays a big role in their health

1.4.3 Accountability for nursing practice

⮚ To be accountable for nursing practice, nurses must have sound
rationale for their actions based on knowledge that is gained
through scienti昀椀c research. Nurses have the responsibility of
keeping current their knowledge base and are of the best
sources of current knowledge is the research literate
1.4.4 Documentation of the cost- e昀昀ectiveness of Nursing care
⮚ Consumers have become more aware of the cost of health care and
are asking for explanations of services they receive these
consumers need to be made aware of the importance of nursing
care in relation to maintain the health of clients and in promoting
the recovery and rehabilitation of ill clients.
⮚ Nursing services consume a large percentage of a hospitals budget,
and if nursing is demonstrated to be cost e昀昀ective, hospitals will be
looked to other areas to cut costs.
⮚ Many studies have demonstrated the cost-e昀昀ective of nursing care

1.4.5 Providing basis for standard setting and quality assurance

1.5 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

1.5.1 Previous research

✔ It is an important source because its objective and

involves systematic process

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1.5.2 Experience
✔ Human beings learn through their experiences in life.
However, no two human beings have the same
experience. Two people may have di昀昀erent
interpretations of the same situation
1.5.3 Through tradition
✔ All human beings inherit culture, the socio-cultural
system involves accepting knowledge of how things are
or should be
✔ This knowledge is required through indoctrination and
socialization transmitted by parents, adults, teachers
and the clergy
1.5.4 From authority
✔ This is from experts in a specialized area giving opinion
on a given issue
✔ We may be misled when we depend on the authority of
persons speaking outside their team of experience

1.5.5 From intuition

✔ Intuition is the perception or explanation or insight into
phenomena by instinct. i.e. ability to gain new
knowledge without conscious reasoning or rational
process
✔ However, throughout history, intuition has remained a
mystery.

1.6 NURSING RESEARCH TERMINOLOGIES

1.6.1 Conceptual de昀椀nition

✔ Refers to de昀椀nition of terms in terms of dictionary de昀椀nition

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1.6.2 Operational de昀椀nition

✔ Operational de昀椀nition or variables refers to de昀椀nition of terms in
a way that the explanation used in the study that helps in
de昀椀ning variables is measurable and quanti昀椀able terms
1.6.3 Population
✔ It’s the entire group of persons or objects that is of interest to
the investigator
1.6.4 Sample
✔ Is a subject of the population selected by investigation to
participate in a research study
1.6.5 Variable
✔ Is a measurable characteristics that assumes di昀昀erent values
among subjects
1.6.6 Validity in relation to Research design
✔ There can be two kinds of validity related to research design,
internal and external validity.

▪ Internal validity –Refers to whether the independent variable

actually made di昀昀erence and results are not due to extraneous
factors
▪ External validity –Refers to the extent to which the results of the
study can be generalized
1.6.7 Feasibility
✔ Refers to the ease with which when the particular study can be
completed

1.6.8 Purpose of the study

✔ It describes why the study has been designed. The purpose
re昀氀ects the intern of the investigations and use of the knowledge
derived
1.6.9 Deductive reasoning

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✔ Is a method of thinking that begins with a general statement of

belief and moves to obtain speci昀椀c observation
▪ Reasoning moves from the general to the speci昀椀c
1.6.10 Inductive reasoning
✔ Involves the collection of observations related to a
particular event. From these observations, a theory or
general explanation regarding the event can evolve,
reasoning moves from speci昀椀c to the general
1.6.11 Bias
✔ Is a feeling or in昀氀uence that strongly favours the
outcome of a particular 昀椀nding in a research project
✔ When the chance of bias is not addressed, the reliability
of the scienti昀椀c 昀椀ndings is considered to be highly
questionable.
1.6.12 The problem statement
✔ It presents the topic under study providing a rationale
for the choice of topic, represents a synthesis of fact
and theory and directs the selection of the design
1.6.13 Qualitative and quantitative variables
✔ Quantitative variable is one whose values or categories
consists of numbers and if di昀昀erences between its
categories can be expressed numerically (age, income,
size, etc)
✔ The qualitative variable is one which consists of discrete
categories rather than numerical(sex, religion, etc)
✔ Relationship among quantitative variables may be
positive or negative
✔ A positive relationship exists if an increase in the value
of one variable is accompanied by an increase in the
value of other or decrease in one is accompanied by
other.

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✔ The negative relationship between variables exists if the

decrease in the value of one variable is accompanied by
an increase in the value of others.

1.6.14 Scholarly publication

✔ Are the documents that serve to communicate to other
professionals the methods and achievements produced
through academic study and research investigation
✔ Scholarly publications are used to disseminate scholarly
work within discipline, which is crucial for the growth of
its members
1.6.15 Delimitation and limitation
✔ Delimitations indicate the cut o昀昀 points beyond which
the researcher does not intend to probe.
✔ It includes those restrictions the researcher placed in
the study prior to gathering data
✔ Limitations indicate the weakness of the entire study as
the researcher perceives them
✔ Delimitations are set during the planning stage,
whereas limitations are experienced during
implementation stage, and these uncontrollable
elements are research report.
1.6.16 Dependent and independent variables
Independent variables is an antecedent to other variables. In an
experiment or quasi-experiment, it’s the variable that is manipulated
and its e昀昀ect on the dependent variable is observed
Dependent variable-Represents the area of interest under investigation
re昀氀ects the e昀昀ect of or the response to the independent variables

1.6.17 Data
✔ Pieces of information obtained in the course of the study
1.6.18 Hypothesis

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✔ Is a statement of the expectations of the researcher

concerning the relationship of the variables under study
1.6.19 Abstract
✔ An abbreviated summary of the research problem,
methodology, 昀椀ndings and signi昀椀cance
1.6.20 Parameter
✔ Is a measurable characteristics and assumes di昀昀erent
values in the population
1.6.21 Statistics
✔ Is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing
quantitative data
✔ It’s also used to indices which are derived from data
through statistical procedures. Indices include means,
standard, deviation e.t.c.

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2.0 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research can be classi昀椀ed in di昀昀erent ways. This can be;

1. By purpose of research e.g. basic and applied

2. By method of analysis e.g. descriptive and correlation
3. Types e.g. survey, observational, historical
4. Broad classi昀椀cation i.e. qualitative and quantitative

2.1 BROAD CLASSIFICATION

2.1.1 Qualitative research

✔ This includes designs, techniques and measures that do

not produce discrete numerical data. More often data is
in words and usually in categories
✔ Data is usually collected by:
a) Direct observation where the required behavior is observed in a
particular setting
b) Participant observation where the researcher who is a regular,
full time participant in the activities being observed
c) Interview method: it is a face to face interaction between the
researcher and the subjects. The researcher uses an interview
schedule

[Link] Qualitative research has advantages such as;

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1. Allows the researcher direct participation to go beyond the statistical

results usually reported in quantitative research
2. Participant observation –where the research who is a regular full time
participant in the activities observed
3. Interview method-it is a face to face interaction between the
researcher and the subjects. The researcher uses an interview
schedule.

Advantages of qualitative research

1) Allows the researcher to go beyond the statistical results usually

reported in quantitative research
2) Human behavior is explained best by using qualitative research
behavior such as emotions and attitudes that cannot be studied by
direct observation are best studied by qualitative method

2.1.2 Quantitative Research

✔ This includes designs, techniques that produce discrete
numerical or quanti昀椀able data
✔ Random sampling is used to ensure representative of
the sample
✔ Some of the research designs that can be categorized
as qualitative researchers or experimental and co
relational research
✔ Any research that yields quanti昀椀able data is a
quantitative study

2.2 CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE

2.2.1 Basic Research

✔ Refers to those studies that are designed to seek

knowledge for its own sale and does not therefore
specify an application of the 昀椀ndings

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✔ Basic research is conducted in order to understand the

relationship among phenomena
✔ Basic research is not aimed toward the solution of
problems or the facilitation of decision making
✔ Basic researchers are normally motivated by intellectual
curiosity
✔ The research is usually but not always in controlled
laboratory situations and uses animals as subjects e.g.
The relationship between alcohol intake and increase in
road tra昀케c accident among matatu drivers
2.2.2 Applied Research
✔ Applied research is research that is designed to produce
昀椀ndings that can be used to remediate or modify a
given situation
✔ The term refers to those that have their purpose an
identi昀椀ed practical use or application
✔ It provides data to support theory, guide theory revision

✔ A problem is investigated and some resolution is sought

by way of research 昀椀ndings

2.3 CLASSIFICATION BY METHOD OF ANALYSIS

2.3.1 Descriptive research

✔ This is the process of collecting data in order to test

hypotheses or to answer questions concerning the
current status in the study
✔ It determines and reports things the way they are at a
particular time
✔ It gives accurate pro昀椀le of the research group
2.3.2 Cause comparative research

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✔ This is used to explore relationships between variables.

This is used to determine the reasons or causes for the
current status of a phenomenon
✔ This is used where experimental research is not possible

✔ This is di昀昀erent from experimental in that the

researcher is not able to manipulate the variables to
determine the e昀昀ect of one on the other. E.g. study
weight gain among infants breastfed

2.4 CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF RESEARCH

2.4.1 Survey research

✔ A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of

a population in order to determine the current status of
the population with one or more variables
✔ It is therefore a self report study which requires the
collection of quanti昀椀able information from the sample.
✔ Survey study could be descriptive, explanatory e.t.c

✔ Survey generally ask subjects to report their attitude,

opinions, perceptions or bahaviour

2.4.2 Historical research

✔ This requires collecting data from the past

✔ Research instruments are not administered to

individuals
✔ Sources of data/information include;
Eye witness reports, original documents as examples of primary
sources
Second hand information i.e. other people’s account (secondary
sources)
2.4.3 Retrospective studies

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✔ This begins with a phenomenon of interest (dependable

variable) in the present and examines the relationship
to other variables in the past. E.g. case studies, causes
of heart attack and the investigating the associated
factors e.g. contraceptive use, activity, childhood
infections, atherosclerosis
2.4.4 Experimental methods
✔ This involves manipulation of independent variables to
determine their e昀昀ect on dependent variable
✔ It is characterized by 3 properties
a) Manipulation
✔ A process in which the researcher manages the
independent variable in order to study the e昀昀ect on
dependent variable e.g. relationship between day of
removal of stitches and post operative infection. Day of
removal is manipulated. Some in 5th day and another
group day on 7th day and see e昀昀ect. Be removed in the
5th day and the other the 7th day.
b) Randomization
✔ Ensures every unit in the target in the population has an
equal chance of being chosen to the sample. Then after
that each unit in the sample has an equal
c) Control
✔ This is where comparison group(s) is used. One has an
equal chance of being in either experimental or control
group.

Experimental designs are divided into;

[Link] True or classical

✔ This is where the researcher has a great deal of control
over the research situation. Examples include
✔ One group pre-test-post-test design. i.e 昀椀rst
measure the dependent variable give experimental

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treatment or independent variable then do a post test

0x0
✔ Pre-test post test control group this is where there
are two groups one experimental (given Rx) and
another control group (no Rx given ). A pre-test is done
to both groups, treatment is given only to experiment
group and then a post test to both groups
One short case study. This is where there is only the
experimental group which is given treatment and then a post-test is
done to test the e昀昀ect of the treatment

[Link] Quasi-experimental design

✔ This is where full experimental control is not possible
randomization not possible. These involve implementing
a speci昀椀c treatment and later examining the e昀昀ects of
this treatment
✔ Is a type of intervention study
Examples
A. Non-equivalent control group design
This is similar to pre-test –post test control group design except
that there is no random assignment of subject to the
experimental and comparison group.
B. Time-series design
In this study, the researcher periodically observes or measures
the subjects. The experimental is administered between two of
the observations e.g. researcher assesses the level of pain in
patients with low back pain weekly and then gives treatment
after the third week. He then continues weekly assessment for
another 3 weeks to see the e昀昀ect of the treatment.

2.5 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TIME DIMENTION IN RESEARCH

Research types under this classi昀椀cation include;

2.5.1 Cross-sectional research

✔ Used when all the information on a speci昀椀c topic is
collected at the same time

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✔ It is non-recurrent in nature and done at speci昀椀c point in

time
✔ It concentrates only on here and now

✔ It is cost e昀昀ective than longitudinal

2.5.2 Longitudinal research

✔ Two or more studies are done on a speci昀椀c topic or
phenomenon over a longer period of time
✔ The instruments used must be standardized as far as
possible. Research determines if there are changes over
a given period of time
✔ It is predominantly descriptive and explanatory in
nature
✔ It is more complex and more expensive

[Link] Sub types of longitudinal Research

a) Panel study-the same people , group or organization is investigated

over various periods of time
b) Cohort –cohorts is a group of individuals with similar characteristics
and are treated as one for the purposes of research
c) Time series- the research is on what happened to people over a period
of time. Information is collected at a speci昀椀c point in time.

2.5.3 Case study

✔ It entails an in depth investigation into various
characteristics of a small number of cases over a
speci昀椀c period of time.
✔ Data collected is more detailed, comprehensive and
varied in nature
✔ A phenomenon is studied in entirely

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✔ It contains an in depth investigation into interaction

among factors in昀氀uencing explanations or change which
are then analyzed

2.6 ETHICAL ISSUES IN NURSING RESEARCH

✔ Issues of ethical behavior are central to health

professions
✔ In conducting clinical trials and research projects,
ethical issues should be taken into consideration
✔ It is unethical for an investigator not to give patients the
best possible treatment
✔ Other way, it is unethical not to discover whether a new
treatment is an improvement, since this would deny
future patients the possibility of a cure.
✔ It is also unethical to perform bad trials that give
misleading results and there by encourage others not to
use a treatment that is bene昀椀cial or to use a treatment
that is not bene昀椀cial, or may indeed have harmful
e昀昀ects
✔ Two important areas of ethical consideration are

⮚ rights of human subjects and

⮚ freedom from harm

✔ Three factors are important regarding the rights of the

participants
⮚ Con昀椀dentiality

⮚ Anonymity

⮚ Voluntary participation

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✔ It can be ensured through an informed consent which

clearly explains the study objectives and states
participation right to accept or refuse to participate

2.6.1 Research participants at Risk

✔ Research participants at risk are individuals who may be

harmed physically emotionally , spiritually, socially or
legally through participation in a research study
✔ A basic responsibility of the researcher and those
assisting in carrying out the project, is to protect all
research participants from harm and while they are
participating in an investigation or as a result of the
study.

2.6.2 Informed consent

✔ Informed consent is the process of providing an

individual with su昀케cient understandable information
regarding his or her participation in a research project
✔ It includes providing potential participants with
information about their rights and responsibilities within
the project and documenting the nature of the
agreement
✔ All consent forms need to assure potential participants
of their right to withdraw from a research study at any
time. Informed consent is the researchers conscious and
deliberate attempt to clearly and fully provide the
potential participant with information about the study
✔ It is a fundamental responsibility of the investigator in
human research to ensure research participants
understand the nature of the project and the
implications of participation and the individual is able to
decide freely whether to participate in a project, without
fear of reprisal. When the researcher fails to adequately
inform potential research participants about full nature
of the research, thereby preventing them from making

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an informed decision on their participation is called

deception

2.6.3 Con昀椀dentiality and Anonymity

✔ The researcher’s responsibility to protect all data

gathered within the scope of the project from being
divulged to others-con昀椀dentiality
✔ Anonymity Refers to the act of keeping individuals
nameless in relation to their participation in a research
project

2.6.4 Regulatory Bodies

✔ The researcher may need to take permission from

regulatory bodies for conducting research
investigations, mainly when subjects are human beings
✔ These are regulatory bodies in most of the countries
which grant permission after considering ethical issues
of study
✔ National council for science and technology deals with
approval and authorization of research being done in
Kenya.

2.6.5 Misuse of privileges

✔ Researchers have power over their subjects to their

training, legal authority to undertake research, and their
perceived ability to provide help. Subjects therefore
participate in research based on this trust.
✔ It is therefore unethical for researchers to abuse this
trust by using their powers negatively e.g
⮚ Using obtained data to stigmatize or indict the same subjects

⮚ Doing research in pretext of providing help

2.6.6 Use of vulnerable and /special groups

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✔ Consent should be obtained in case of disadvantaged

from their guardians
✔ These groups include:

⮚ Mentally challenged sick people, children

⮚ Prisoners, street children e.t.c.

2.6.7 Financial issues and sponsored research

✔ A sponsor may demand compromise on quality to save

on costs and time
✔ Some sponsors may demand the 昀椀ndings to be reported
in a distorted manner for their own sel昀椀sh reasons
✔ Some researchers may divert research funds for their
own use
✔ All these are unacceptable. A researcher should
maintain his/her integrity

2.6.8 Dissemination of Findings

✔ It is unethical to conceal research 昀椀ndings for some

reasons. Even if results are contrary or against the
sponsor’s wishes or expectations, they should be
disseminated and not concealed.

2.6.9 Intellectual property Rights

✔ Joint researchers should not be published as personal by

one individual.

2.6.10 Plagiarism and Fraud

Plagiarism;

✔ Is a situation where a researcher refers to another

persons work as his/her without acknowledging the
author this is punishable by law

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Fraud:

✔ Is where a researcher takes data that has not actually

been collected and also false presentation of research
methodology and results.
✔ This is also punishable in law

DIFERRENCES
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
1. Prediction and control- Understanding –seeks to understand peoples
seeks causes and interpretations and perceptions
e昀昀ects of human
behavior
2. Reality is made up of Reality changes with changes in people’s
facts that do not perception
change

3. Reality is what Reality is what people perceive it to be

quanti昀椀able data
indicates it to be
4. Values can be Values will have an impact and should be
controlled by both understood and taken into account when
appropriate conducting and reporting research
methodological
procedures
5. It is particulistic – Holistic –complete picture is sought
selected, prede昀椀ned
variables are studied
6. Veri昀椀cation- Discovery –theories and hypotheses evolve
predetermined from data collected
hypotheses are
investigated and tested
7. Objective –data is Subjective-data is a perception of people in
independent of peoples the environment
perceptions
8. Non-human- Human-the human being is the primary data
reconstructed tests, collection instrument
observational records,
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questionnaires and
rating scales are
employed
9. Controlled- Naturalistic –investigations are conducted
investigations are under natural conditions
conducted under
controlled conditions
10. Data is coded Data coding starts in the 昀椀eld and is done as
after all the data has data collected
been collected
11. Data analyzed Data is analyzed by coding and organizing it
using statistical into themes and concepts
packages which yield
descriptive and
inferential statistics
12. Reliability and Trustworthiness- the focus is on design and
validity-the focus is on procedures to gain “ real” “rich” and “deep”
design and procedures data
to gain “hard” and
replicable 昀椀ndings
13. A detailed The reports are normally narrative
description of the
research problem,
objectives, hypotheses
and methods given
14. Results are Respondents “voices” are usually quoted
presented in tables
with explanations

NOTE

Problem solving and nursing process:- basis for understanding the

quantitative research process.

● A process includes a purpose, a series of actions, and a goal.

● A purpose provides direction for the implementation of a series of

actions to actions to achieve an identi昀椀ed goal.

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Comparison

Problem-solving Nursing process Research process

process

1 Data collection Assessment Knowledge of the world of

. nursing
Data collection
Clinical experience
Data
interpretation Literature review

2 Problem de昀椀nition Nursing diagnosis Problem and purpose

. identi昀椀cation

3 Plan Plan Methodology plan

.
Setting goals Setting goals Design

Identifying Planned interventions Sample

solution
Methods of measurement

Data collection

Data analysis

4 Implementation Implementation Implementation

.

5 Evaluating and Evaluation and Outcomes, communication of

. revising process modi昀椀cation 昀椀ndings and use of 昀椀nding in
practice.

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3.0 RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Identi昀椀cation of
the research
problem

10. communicating
the research
feedback

[Link] of objectives, question,

hypothesis

[Link] analysis,
interpretation and
presentation

[Link], justi昀椀cation,
purpose

8. data
collection

[Link]
review

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7. conducting pre -
testing

[Link]
method

[Link] of
measurement

3.1 Introduction

✔ A research process starts by formulating of research

problem that can be investigated through research
procedures
✔ The introduction chapter covers:

⮚ Process of identifying a research problem

⮚ Characteristics of a good research problem

⮚ Stating the problem

⮚ Objective or objectives of the research

⮚ Hypotheses/hypotheses of a research study

⮚ Research variables

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3.2 Steps in Research Process

1. Identi昀椀cation of the research problem

2. Formulation of research objectives, hypotheses and questions
3. Give a rational/purpose, justi昀椀cation
4. Literature review
5. Research methodology-it is about the design of the research data
collection
6. Methods of measurements
-Tools, checklist, questionnaire, observation charts
7. Pilot study/pretest
8. Data collection and presentation
9. Data analysis and interpretation
10. Communicating the research 昀椀ndings/report writing

3.3 Identifying Research Problems

3.3.1 Steps

i. Identify the broad area of interest

✔ The area should be relevant to the profession and goals
of the researcher e.g. HIV/AIDS, TB, malaria, FP,
breastfeeding
ii. Identify a speci昀椀c problem within broad area e.g. in HIV/AIDS
✔ Prevention of new infections

✔ Circumcision

✔ Needle prick injuries to nurses

✔ Breastfeeding or not of infected

✔ Management (HAART/ARV Rx)

✔ Compliance

✔ HAART in mother to child transmission

✔ Health workers handling

✔ Perceptions

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3.3.2 What is a Researchable problem?

It should be an important problem i.e.

i. Lead to 昀椀ndings that have wide spread implication to a particular

area
ii. Challenge some commonly held altruism
iii. Reviews the inadequacies of existing laws, policies, theories, views
e.t.c.
iv. Cover a reasonable scope i.e. not too narrow or general

3.3.3 Certain factors determine the scope of a research study

These factors include:

i. The time available to carry it out

ii. The money available to carry out-type print and bind reports
iii. The availability of equipments needed to carry out the research
iv. The availability of subjects or units of study

3.3.4 Ways of identifying a speci昀椀c research problem

A research problem can be identi昀椀ed by several ways from the broad area

a) Existing literature
✔ By doing systematic reading of broad area of interest.
This gives a good background of the basic information
and insight into various issues that could be studied
b) Existing theories
✔ Existing theories in an area contain generalization and
hypotheses and principles which can be scienti昀椀cally
tested
✔ This leads to validation or otherwise invalidate of an
existing generalization or principles
c) Discussion with experts
✔ Discussion with subject authorities in seminars, class,
workshop, conferences e.t.c. are a source of current
problems that could be researched include experienced
researchers
d) Replication

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✔ This involves carrying out a research that has been

done previously
✔ The problem and methods are identical to the previous
study
e) Previous research studies
✔ These usually indicate areas of further research or
knowledge gaps in previous studies
✔ This helps in building up knowledge from previous
researchers
f) Media
✔ Frequently reported issues in the media can form the
basis of research problem such issues are usually
discussed in a public and hence important to majority
Examples
✔ Prostitutions-discordant couples, HIV/AIDS orphans, both
injuries related to fuel tanker accidents, husband
battering, drug peddling and abuse e.t.c.

g) Personal experiences
● First hand observations and re昀氀ection experiences could
be sources of research problems ie. Experiences usually
lead and vivid images, a hunch or an intuition on the part
of a serious researcher e.g
● Post surgical infections, maternal death, and neonatal
death

3.3.5 Stating the problem

● The researcher usually starts with a brief introductory

section of the general study area. Then the researcher
narrows down to the speci昀椀c area of study

3.3.6 Characteristics of a good problem statement

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i. It is clearly written that it captures the readers interest

ii. Should be objectively researchable
iii. It indicates the scope of the speci昀椀c research
iv. The signi昀椀cance of the study is clearly stated i.e. how study will
add new knowledge
v. The problem statement must give the purpose of the research

3.4 Stating the purpose/Broad objective

✔ It conveys the focus of the study in one or two
sentences
✔ The purpose famishes why the study is being done

✔ It crystallizes the researchers inquiry into a particular

昀椀eld
✔ It accurately expressed, the rest of the research process
will be easy

3.4.1 Criteria for a good purpose statement

i. Be clear, unambiguously and a declarative manner

ii. Should indicate concepts or variables in the study
iii. The relationship between variables should be stated where possible
iv. Should state the target population
v. The variables and the target population in the purpose should be
consistent with the variables and target population operationalized
in the method section of the study
Examples
✔ The purpose of this study is to investigate breastfeeding
purposes/practices among the professionals in
Mombasa
✔ The purpose of this is to 昀椀nd out the relationship
between male circumcision and HIV infection
prevalence/incidences in Nyanza province
✔ The purpose of this study is to compare the e昀昀ects of
three types of cattle feed on the productivity of milk in
cows

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✔ The purpose of this study is to determine the e昀昀ects of

alcohol on reaction time of heavy truck drivers in Kenya

NB-The purpose should not be stated in biased or subjective

verbs/sentences

BIASED NEUTRAL

-Show –indicate -Determine -Find out

-Prove -Validate -Compare -Examine

-Con昀椀rm –Explain -Explore -Inquire

-Verify –Illustrate -Investigate -Test

-Check -Di昀昀erentiate -Establish

-Demonstrate

3.5 Stating the speci昀椀c objective

✔ These are speci昀椀c issues within the scope of stated
purpose
✔ These helps the researcher to keep the scope of the
study by de昀椀ning area of knowledge that the researcher
is focusing on
✔ Neutral verbs or phrases are applicable also here
Examples
Purpose
✔ The purpose of this study is to investigate the
breastfeeding practices among professionals in
Mombasa district

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3.5.1 Speci昀椀c objectives

✔ To identify the social economic status of professionals,

women in Mombasa
✔ To investigate the factors that in昀氀uence baby weaning
by professional women in Mombasa
✔ To explore the attitudes of professional women in
Mombasa towards breastfeeding

3.6 Formulating hypotheses

✔ This is the researchers prediction concerning the

outcome of the study
✔ It states possible di昀昀erences, relationships or caused
between two variables or concepts
✔ These derived or based on:

⮚ Existing theories

⮚ Personal experiences

⮚ Previous research

✔ A study can have one or more hypotheses. These

hypotheses are crucial because that is the study put to
empirically test.

3.6.1 Purposes of Hypothesis

1. Hypothesis provides direction. They bridge the gap between the

problem and the evidence needed for its solution
2. Hypothesis ensure collection of the evidence necessary to answer the
question posed in the statement
3. Hypothesis enable the investigator to assess the information he/she
has collected in terms of relevance and organization
4. Hypothesis permit the researcher to understand the problem with
greater clarity and use the data collected to 昀椀nd solutions to problems

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5. Hypothesis from the frame work for the ultimate conclusions as

solutions. Researchers usually base their conclusions on the results of
the tests of their hypothesis

3.6.2 Characteristics of a good hypothesis

a) They must state clearly and brie昀氀y the expected relationship of

variables
b) They must be based on a sound rationale derived from theory,
previous research or professional experience
c) They should be consistent with common sense or generally accepted
truths
d) They must be testable i.e. data can be collected to support or fail to
support hypothesis
e) They must be testable within a reasonable time
f) They must be related to empirical phenomena-words to “ought”,
“should”, “bad” should be avoided
g) Variable stated in the hypothesis must be consistent with the purpose
statement, objectives and the operationalisation of variables in the
method section
h) They should be concise and simple

Examples

i.
High alcohol content in the blood in昀氀uences reaction time among
drivers in Kenya
ii. There is a relationship between level of education and income
among civil servants in Kenya
iii. The amount of rainfall and the type of fertilizer used in昀氀uences
the yield of wheat per area in the Riftvalley province in Kenya
3.6.2 Types of Hypotheses

[Link] Null hypothesis

✔ Also called statistical hypotheses

✔ These always states that no relationship of di昀昀erences

exists. Any relationship between two variables or
di昀昀erences between groups is merely due to chance or
errors
e.g. High alcohol content in the blood a昀昀ects reaction time among
truck drivers in Kenya

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✔ There is a relationship between bhang tra昀케cking and

intelligence among tra昀케ckers

[Link] Alternative directional hypotheses

✔ This speci昀椀es the relationship or di昀昀erences between
variables. The relationship may be stated as either
being higher than or lower than e.t.c. e.g. Male
circumcision reduces the prospection of contracting HIV
infection among males in Nyanza province.

3.7 Assumption
✔ An assumption is any fact that the researcher takes to
be true without verifying
✔ An assumption parts some boundary around the study
and provides the reader with information which
in昀氀uences the way the result of the study is interpreted
e.g. male circumcision reduces propensity of
contracting HIV infection.
Assumption
The sexual habits of the uncircumcised and circumcision are the
same

3.8 Limitation
✔ This is an aspect of a research that may in昀氀uence the
results negatively but over which the researcher has no
control
✔ A common limitation in social science studies is the
scope of the study which sometimes may not allow for
generalizations.
✔ Another common limitation is the sample size

✔ Factors that can be controlled by researcher should not

be included as limitation, unless good rationale is
provided
3.9 VARIABLES

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✔ A variable is a measurable attribute that assumes di昀昀erent

values among the respondents
✔ Variables can be divided into:

3.9.1 Independent variables

✔ These are variables that are manipulated in order to get its
in昀氀uence or e昀昀ects in other variables
✔ They are also called predictor variable e.g. the in昀氀uence of
alcohol on reaction time
(Alcohol=Independent variable)
✔ The in昀氀uence of peer pressure on choice of contraceptive
(peer pressure=independent variable)
✔ Cigarette smoking is signi昀椀cantly related to lung cancer
(Cigarette smoking=independent variable)
Examples of other independent variable include
Age, Gender, Marital status

3.9.2 Dependent Variables

⮚ These are variables that attempt to indicate total in昀氀uence
arising from e昀昀ects of independent variables
⮚ These variables varies as the independent variable is
manipulated
⮚ They are also called criterion variable.
Examples
The in昀氀uence of alcohol on reaction time ( reaction time is a
dependent variable)
⮚ The in昀氀uence of hours studied on performance in a C.A.T.
(Performance in a C.A.T. is dependent variable)

3.9.3 Extraneous variables

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⮚ These are those variables that a昀昀ect the outcome of a research

study either because the researcher is not aware of them or if
the researcher does not control them
⮚ Failure to control the variables, it will be di昀케cult to determine
how much in昀氀uence on the dependent variable due to an
extraneous variable and how much in昀氀uence is due to the
independent variable
⮚ Extraneous variable are also called confounding variables
E.g. in studying the in昀氀uence of alcohol on reaction time and a
sample aged over 25 years.
▪ The researcher 昀椀nds that the reaction time
increases with the level of alcohol. But suppose a
big proportion of the sample is over 50 years, the
reaction time may have something to do with the
age and as well level of alcohol therefore it will be
di昀케cult to determine alcohol in昀氀uence and age
in昀氀uence.
▪ Gender can be an issue still in the above study. If
age and gender are included in the study to see
the relationships between gender are included in
the study to see the relationship between gender,
age and reaction time, then it is ok. If not then
age and gender are included as extraneous
variables and hence 昀椀ndings will be questionable.
▪ Accurate randomization to some extent controls
possible in昀氀uence of extraneous variables.
3.9.4 Intervening variables
⮚ This may be considered as a very special case of an extraneous
variable.
⮚ An intervening variable comes between the dependent and
independent variables. These independent variables in昀氀uences
the intervening variable which in turn in昀氀uences to dependent
variable
Example

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▪ In a study of absenteeism among female nurses, married

nurses were found to have a higher rate of absenteeism
compared to single female nurses. One would think that
marital status is a determinant of absenteeism
▪ On searching for a possible intervening variable in this study
would reveal that the variable “Amount of house work” is
indeed an intervening variable. Hence it can be argued that
were it not for amount of work, no di昀昀erence in absenteeism
between married and single nurses.

[Link] Examples of problem statement format :

a) Correlation

1. Is there a correlation between age and relation time of long matatu

drivers?
2. Is there a correlation between anxiety and end of block exam scores
of diploma nursing students

b) Complete statement

1. Is there a di昀昀erence in readiness to learn about preoperative teaching

between people/patients who have high anxiety levels

c) Experimental

Is there a di昀昀erence in pre-operative anxiety levels of patients who were

relational techniques compared to those patients who were not taught
relational techniques?

D) Descriptive

Are pre-operative patients who have high anxiety levels less ready to learn
about preoperative relaxation techniques then pre-operative patients who
have low anxiety levels

[Link] Di昀昀erences between problem statement and purpose

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Problem-What will be examined/content of the study

Purpose-why the study

Problem statement

▪ Before their 昀椀rst interactions with psyche clients, is there a

di昀昀erence in the anxiety levels of nursing students who have read
their clients charts before interacting withthem and those who
have not read their clients charts before interacting with these
clients

Purpose of study

▪ To determine the means of facilitating nursing students 昀椀rst

interactions with clients in the psychiatric setting.

Rationale – Reasons for carrying out research

i. Which knowledge gaps it will address

ii. Why is the study important?

Signi昀椀cance – address

i. How will the results be used

ii. Who will bene昀椀t from the results
iii. Is the study work

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4.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

This involves the systematic identi昀椀cation, location and analysis of
documents containing information related to the research problem being
investigated

It should be extensive and thorough:

4.1 PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

i. The main purpose is to determine what has been done on the problem
being studied
ii. This avoids unnecessary and unintentional duplications
iii. Demonstrates one’s familiating with existing body of knowledge gives
the reader con昀椀dence
iv. Identify consistently unproductive or unreliable approaches
v. Reveals information gaps and unanswered questions
vi. Reveals strategies procedures and measuring instruments useful in the
investigations of the research problem. This helps one to avoid
mistakes that have been made by other researchers and also helps
one to bene昀椀t from other researchers experience.
vii. Literature review will suggest other procedures, approaches, and other
recommendations which one can try
viii. Makes the researcher familiar with previous studies thus facilitates
interpretation of the study results. Results can be discussed in terms of

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whether they support or contrast previous 昀椀ndings. If contradicting

literature review may provide rationale for the discrepancy.
ix. Literature review helps the researcher to narrow or limit the research
problem and to de昀椀ne it better. The literature will give the researcher
the knowledge needed to convert a tentative research problem into a
detailed and concise plan of work
x. It helps determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. The
researcher may also be alerted to research possibilities which have
been overlooked into the past.

4.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DOING LITERATURE

i. Assess the strengths and weakness of past management

ii. Report any inconsistent 昀椀ndings
iii. Identify gaps in the knowledge
iv. Determine the contribution of proposed study
v. Consider the possibility of unintentional duplication

4.3 SCOPE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Questions arising from the scope include:

✔ How wide or narrow should it be?

✔ What is the relevance to my topic?

These are applicable questions and they get answered with experience.
There is no formula for arriving at a decision. However these hints are useful
towards determining scope

i. In widely researched area, cover a narrow topic in depth e.g. HIV

ii. In a little or new researched areas, where little depth available, the
researcher would require to review any relevant material in order to

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develop a logical framework for the study and appropriate

hypotheses for the study
iii. Avoid the temptation to include all available materials. Excessive
material does not mean great research information
iv. At the point of saturation reencountering already reviewed
literature , abandon literature review.

4.4 TIPS ON GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW

a) Avoid hurried review, you may overlook important studies

b) Avoid relying too much on secondary sources
c) Concentrate on the methodology and measurements used and not only
昀椀ndings
d) Copy references correctly and constantly acknowledge sources

4.5 STEPS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Be familiar with the library-before beginning the literature review

2. Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your search e.g. female
condoms, abortions, nursing, episiotomy
3. Go to the source of the literature
4. Summarize the references on cards for easy organization of the
literature
5. Analyze, organize and report the collected data in orderly manner. This
is usually the hardest part
6. Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation.
Decide on the number of headlines and sub headlines required
depending on how detailed the review is
7. Analyze each reference in terms of the outline made and establish
where it will be most relevant
8. Studies contrary to the received wisdom should not be ignored, such
studies should be analyzed and possible explanation for the di昀昀erences
given

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9. Literature should be organized in such a way that more general issues

covered 昀椀rst before the researcher narrows down to that which is more
speci昀椀c to the research problem
10. Some researchers prefer to have a brief summary of the
literature and its implications. However this is optional.

4.6 SOURCES OF LITERATURE

4.6.1 Primary sources

✔ These are accounts of those who actually observed or witnessed

the occurrence of the phenomena
✔ It also includes accounts of primary researchers (original
documents)
✔ These should be used as much as possible because secondary
sources may be attended by writers

4.6.2 Secondary sources

⮚ These include publication of authors who were not direct
observers or participants of the events described. Examples of
sources of literature/information;

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[Link] Scholarly journals

✔ Are crucial research documents. Are found in the libraries. They
can also be found in the internet

[Link] These and dissertations

These are research projects written by masters and PHD students. They
are valuable sources of information.

[Link] Government documents

These include policy papers and research reports owned government
[Link] demographic and Health survey, vision 2030

[Link] Papers presented at conferences

✔ Papers during conferences and symposium good and are primary
sources e.g. literature

[Link] Books
✔ These are available in most libraries seek assistance of librarian
to assist in library searching

[Link] Abstracts
✔ Abstracts give a list of journal articles with summaries e.g.
nutritional abstracts

[Link] Computer search

✔ Can use key words in search for relevant literature

✔ This is used where all information materials are computerized

[Link] Internet

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✔ One can browse the web and get literature from the latest
articles, conference papers and policy documents from various
organizations

[Link] Others
Includes periodicals, grey literature (unpublished literature) Africa etc
Referencing within text
African psychological Association (APAD) system
Method 1:
Authors last name(s) and the year of document publication comes
after or before paraphrased statements
a) e.g. Before (one author)
- John(2009) asserted that female condoms are only used by 2% of
female students in the faculty of health sciences.
Before (2 Authors)
John and Alice (2009) Asserted that female condoms are only used
by 2% of female students in the facility of health sciences in
subsequent citation,
John , et al (2009) Asserted that….
b) After (one Author)
- It has been documented that only 2% of female students in the
faculty of health sciences use female condoms( John,2009)
After (two authors)
4 It has been documented that only 2% of female students in the F.H.S
use female condoms(John and Alice (2009) )
5 After (three authors)
6 It has been documented that…(John, Alice and Kennedy, 2009) or John,
et al, 2009

Method 2: Numerical Referencing

7 Here numbers are used instead of authors name year of publication e.g.
It has been documented that only 2% of female students in the
faculty of Health sciences use female condoms(1,2012) or the
number can be put after the statement but no brackets

Foot notes
8 These are references which appear at the bottom of a journal paper or
a book rather than at the end of the text.
9 These serve two purposes

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i. To provide additional information with no disruption

ii. To indicate the source of an idea. Are helpful to a reader
who wish to refer to the sources of facts or opinions
presented hence accurate and complete information is
essential
10 Foot notes can be indicated through;
a) Numbering footnotes consecutively throughout the chapter and
then put the references on each page
b) Footnotes can be numbered and then put at the end of the
chapter.

QUATATIONS

Quotations may be used for several reasons;

i. For accuracy
ii. For presentation of statements that are unusually clear and well put
iii. To add strength to ones study especially when the quotation marks
before and after the quote, then italiaze. E.g there is signi昀椀cant
relationship between the alcohol intake and academic performance.
The higher the alcohol intake, the lower the performance in
academics. ( Njenga, 2005)
iv. Direct quotation must be exactly the way it is (No corrections)
11 When using incomplete statements, use quotations marks before and
after then quote, then italiaze, use 3 dots/periods to represent the
missing text either before or after. E.g.
“…The higher the alcohol intake, the lower the performance in
academics,”(Njenga,2005,P.5)

Cited references and Bibliography

Cited reference- Is the list of materials actually read and cited in the
text by the researcher
Bibliography- Refers to the list of materials that were read whether
in the text or not

Examples how to reference di昀昀erent sources of information

1. Journal article (one author)

Smones, K.(1998), consumer issues and the elderly. Journal of

consumer a昀昀airs, 24 235-244

2. Journal article 9two authors)

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John, M. and Rose, N.(1976) e昀昀ects of alcohol on reaction among truck

drivers. Journal of gerontology,38.100-105
3. Newspaper article
Watoro Kamau (Aug 9th ,1999) New campaign on child labour . the
daily Nation PP.17
4. A book
Harris, H. I(1986) why family estate planning? San Franscisco, CA
Bankroft-Whitney company
5. Journal Article from the web
Herz, J.C.(1995,April) Sur昀椀ng from the internet: A nethead’s adventures
online.(online senal)
Urban desires, 1.3,

5.0 METHODOLOGY

⮚ Has to go about the particular design to use

⮚ This describes the procedures that have been followed in

conducting the study

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⮚ It deals with
i) Identifying research design
ii) Sampling procedures
iii) Measurement methods

5.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

Includes; common ones

a) Experimental- Classical or true quasi

b) Survey-A comparative study or correlation study
c) Descriptive research design
d) Case study design

5.2 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING METHODS

⮚ Is a subset or a small group that represents the total population of a

study subscale, selected group, part at a whole
⮚ Population-Entire group of persons/ a set of objectives and events the
research has to study

5.2.1 Sampling frame

⮚ Is a comprehensive list of the sample element in the target
population e.g. a list of all nurses in a district hospital

5.2.2 Sampling bias

⮚ Occurs when the researcher has not carefully selected, the
sample that’s expected to represent the target population

5.2.3 Sampling error

⮚ Is the di昀昀erence between the sample characteristics and
population characteristics (population invalidity)

5.2.4 Sample size

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⮚ If time allows, a researcher should take a large sample which is

better for generalization
⮚ It depends on factors such as;
o Number of variables, type of research, design, method of
data analysis, the size at the accessible population
⮚ It has been suggested that for coming up a sample size on
estimation can be used.
E.g. for correlation studies 30 or more are required
for descriptive signs and symptoms of accessible are enough
for experimental at least 30 cases are required per group
NB: However there’s a statistical formula for calculating a sample
size

5.3 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

There are two basic sampling

a) Probability/random sampling
b) Non-probability sampling

5.3.1 Probability or Random Sampling

⮚ The goal of probability sampling is to select a responsible number

of subject, objects or cases that present to get population
⮚ In random sampling, each unit of the sample here have equal
chance of being selected. This allows generation of results in a
higher population

[Link] Simple random sampling

⮚ It involves giving a number to every subject or a member of the
accessible population placing the number in a container then
picking any number at random
⮚ Alternatively one can use a table of random number or can be
generated by computers

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[Link] Systematic random sampling

⮚ In every kth case is selected in a population frame for inclusion in

the sample
⮚ The list of all members in the sampling frame, must be
randomized to get a true random sample
⮚ Once the sampling frame has been randomized, the researcher
then decides the sampling interval
⮚ Interval is the distance between the cases that are selected for
the sample. i.e. divide the total population over sample size
e.g. population of 400 Kth=400/100=4 subject/case is used.
Sample size at 60
⮚ Every 4th case is picked, this process continues and sampling case
is completed

[Link] Strati昀椀ed random sampling

⮚ This ensures representation from various subgroup in the
population
⮚ The population is subdivided into subgroups or statistics and the
sample selected from each subgroup

Steps
a) Identify the population
b) De昀椀ne the criteria for strati昀椀cation e.g. sex, age, colour, gender,
income level, cadres of nurses
c) Stratify the population into two or more groups using a given
criteria have a list of population in each strata
d) Determine the required sample size and appropriate
representation (can be proportionate or equal)
e) Select the respondent using simple random an appropriate
number of subjects for each stratum

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[Link] Cluster sampling

⮚ Used where sampling frame is not possible e.g. Where population
is too large or if its scattered

Steps

a) Identify the population e.g. Malaria patients in Kenya

b) De昀椀ne the clusters forming the population e.g. Malaria patients
in district hospitals. Other clusters include ; schools, estate,
ministries, department
c) Determine the required sample size e.g. Loss of malaria patients
d) List all the clusters in a random order e.g. Mombasa, Msambweni
e.t.c

e) Using the table of random number select the required number of

clusters according to size of cluster required e.g. Select 2-3
district hospital with loss of patients

f) All members in the selected cluster are included in the unit

observed.

5.3.2 Non probability sampling

⮚ Used when a researcher is not interested in selecting a sample

that is representative of a population
⮚ Is common in quantitative research because the focus is on depth
information and not making references or generalizations

[Link] Purposive sampling

⮚ In this technique the researcher uses/selects cases that have
the required information with one’s object to the study

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⮚ The cases are handpicked simply because they have the

required information
N/B
The researcher speci昀椀es the criteria e.g. certain age, range, region,
education level, speci昀椀ed group etc
Disadvantages include:
✔ Sampling bias

✔ Non-representative hence no generalization

✔ After the criteria has been set, random sampling is then

applied

[Link] Snow balling sampling

⮚ In this method, initially the researcher identi昀椀es few subjects
with desired characteristics using purposive method
⮚ This few respondent direct the researcher to other subject with
similar characteristics
⮚ This continues until the researcher gets the number of
cases/subjects he requires e.g. Research dealing with drug
addicts and sex workers, social deviates
⮚ This method is useful where the population that possesses the
required characteristics is small or hard to 昀椀nd

[Link] Quota sampling

⮚ Is similar to strati昀椀ed random sampling and the objective is to

include various groups or quota of the population in the study
based on some criteria
⮚ Researcher purposely chooses the subject to 昀椀t the quota

Steps

a) Identify the population of interest

b) Determine size of sample

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c) Stratify population into quota, depending on criteria

d) Cases are purposely selected to 昀椀ll the quotas

[Link] Convenient/ Accidental sampling

⮚ Involves selecting cases or units of observation as they become
available to the researcher, also called “volunteer sampling”
e.g. if one wants to assess the BP on female on depo provera,
once above 40 years, one will check the BP of any client on the
age bracket of >40 years who are attending FP clinic despite
the parity, not everyone is given a chance

5.4 MEASUREMENT LEVELS AND TOOLS USED IN DATA COLLECTION

5.4.1 Measurement level scales

⮚ It’s the process of assigning number to variables

⮚ Measurement as used in research implies quanti昀椀cation of

information ie assigning some type of number to the data
⮚ These applies in quantitative research

⮚ Mathematical calculations that can be made with data obtained

depend on the level/scale of measurement
⮚ There are 4 levels/scales of measurement
a) Nominal scale
b) Ordinal scale
c) Interval scale
d) Ratio scale

[Link] Nominal scale

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⮚ Considered as the lowest level of measurement/scale of all variables

⮚ This level/scale merely groups subjects/cases from the sample into

categories with a common set of characteristics
⮚ Variables that can only be measured at nominal level include:

● Sex e.g. male and female

● Marital status e.g. single, married, separated, divorced

● Religion e.g. Christian, Islam, Hinduism, ATR e.g. variable

marital status may be included in a research. The researcher
then can operationalise this variable as married, single,
divorced, separated
The researcher would then number the subjects that fall in (3)
separated (4) these numbers are for identi昀椀cation e.g.
married (40) single (10) divorced(5) separated(1) in a
frequency.
⮚ Numbers are often assigned to various categories for the purpose of
identi昀椀cation. We could have assigned 1-married, 2- single, 3-divorced,
4- separated
⮚ These numbers do not represent quantities or order, addition,
subtraction, division, multiplication of this numbers would yield
meaningless values.
⮚ Variables that can take two categories are referred to as
“Dichotomous” e.g. sex can take either male and female

[Link] Ordinal scale

⮚ The scale groups subjects into categories and also ranks them into
same order either ascending, descending (highest to lowest) or (lowest
to highest)
⮚ Numerical represent relative position or order among the values of the
variables
E.g. nursing cadres (KECN, KRN, KRCHN, BSN, MSN, PHD)
Social economic class (low, mild, upper class)

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Severity of anaemia (mild, moderate, severe)

[Link] Interval scale

⮚ In this class, numbers assigned in each measure are ranked in order
and interval between numbers are equal
⮚ Numerical used represent quantities in mathematical operations (+ve,
-ve) on numerical would yield meaningful values but this mathematical
operations are limited to addition and subtraction (multiplication and
divisions are not applicable)
⮚ In this scale, there’s no true 0 point i.e. It can take-ve values e.g.
interval scale measures include;
Temp. in test score or in foren height e.g. 99 0c-980c-98.20c order
and interval of 0.40c.

[Link] Ratio scale

⮚ Is the highest level of measurement, it’s the most precise method of
measuring a variable
⮚ It has all characteristics of other scales (nominal, internal, ordinal)

⮚ It has a true 0 point and all mathematical operations can be applied to

yield meaningful values
⮚ Most physical objects can be measured at the ratio scale e.g. Weight,
height, age, area, BP, distance e.t.c. e.g. a 昀椀eld 1000m long is as twice
as long as one which is 50m long. Therefore 0m long means no length
as weight

NB

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⮚ When considering interval and ratio scale, there are 2 types of

variables
i. Discrete variable: these can take only exact numbers
(whole numbers)
ii. Continuous variable: these measures can theoretically
occur at any point in a continuous e.g. Height 5.2m, 5.65m,
age 24.3years 34.8months

5.5 INSTRUMENTS IN RESEARCH

⮚ An ideal instrument is one which results in measurements that

are relevant, accurate, objective, sensitive and e昀케cient
⮚ An instrument is a device used to measure the concept of
interest in a research project
⮚ Instruments can be;
i. Observation scales, forms or checklist
ii. Questionnaires
iii. Interview schedules
iv. Standardized tests
5.5.1 QUESTIONNAIRES
⮚ It’s the commonly used tool

⮚ Each item in the questionnaire is used to address a speci昀椀c objective

research question or hypothesis of the study
⮚ The researcher must know how each item in the questionnaire is to be
analyzed
⮚ A questionnaire must be well thought or it will;
Cause a confusion to the respondent on the information required
Discourage the respondents to an extent of discarding it
It may leave important information

[Link] CATEGORIES OF QUESTIONS USED IN A QUESTIONNAIRE

a) Structural or close ended

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● These are accompanied with possible alternatives from where

respondents selects the answer that will best describe the
situation
● Always has the other(specify) option to cater for any category that
might have been left out eg. What do you crave for in pregnancy
apart from food?
-clay –charcoal –others(specify)

Disadvantages of structured questions

1. They are more di昀케cult to construct because categories must be

well thought out
2. Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to
answer according to research choices

Advantages of structured questions

1. Are easy to analyze

2. Easy to administer because each items followed by alternative answers
3. Are economical in time and costs

b) Unstructured /open question

● They give the respondent freedom of response

● They have no present alternatives

E.g. how do you handle cases of
malpractice? ..............................................................

Advantages of open ended questions

i. They yield in depth responses

ii. They are simpler to formulate because the researcher does
not need to labour to come up with appropriate categories
iii. Responses give insight to the feelings, attitudes, interest,
decisions, hidden motivations and background
iv. They stimulate persons to think about his feelings or motives
and to express what he considers to be most important

Disadvantages

i. Answers given might be irrelevant to the research objectives

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ii. They are hard to categorize and analyze

iii. They are time consuming for respondents and may put them o昀昀.

c) Contingency questions

● Are applicable to certain respondents only and not all

● These are follow up questions and are required to get further

information from relevant subgroup also called ‘昀椀lter’ questions
● They are used to probe for more information and save the
respondent from answering questions which are irrelevant to
them

● Examples

1. Have you ever been pricked by a needle?

Yes……………..
No……………...
If yes how many times
Once…………..
2-4 times……….
Over 4 times……….
[Link] you ever used any contraceptives
Yes………………
No……………….
The questions can be structured or unstructured
c) Matrix questions
● These are questions that share same set of response categories

● Are common whenever scales are used

Examples how are you satis昀椀ed with you job?
a) Financial 12345
b) Quality of life 12345
c) Level of assets 12345
d) Ability to save 12345
Key
1- Extremely dissatis昀椀ed
2- Dissatis昀椀ed

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3- Neutral
4- Satis昀椀ed
5- Extremely satis昀椀ed

Advantages of matrix questions

a) They are easy to complete and unlikely to put o昀昀 respondents

b) Space is used e昀케ciently
c) It is easy to compare responses given to di昀昀erent items. The
researcher can easily detect a trend just by glancing at the
responses
d) They are easy to analyze

Disadvantages of matrix questions

a) Because they are easy to construct and analyze they can be misused
b) Some respondents may form a pattern of agreeing or disagreeing with
all items

[Link] RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING A QUESTIONNAIRE AND ITS

ITEMS

1. Start by listing the speci昀椀c objectives that you want the questionnaire
to accomplish
2. Determine how each item is to be analyzed
3. Ensure clarity avoid terms like ‘most’ or several
4. If a concept has several meanings, then the intended meaning must be
de昀椀ned
5. Short questions are preferred to long ones
6. Items should be stated positively as much as possible. Negative words
are easily overlooked by respondents
7. Questions with two separate items should be avoided
8. Leading or biased questions should be avoided
9. Very personal and sensitive questions should be avoided
10. Use simple words that are easy to understand
11. Avoid psychologically threatening questions eg. Are you worried
of the consequences of divorce?
12. Avoid questions that assume facts without evidence
13. Make complete meaningful statements

[Link] PRETESTING A QUESTIONNAIRE

6 This is trying out the questionnaire in the 昀椀eld

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7 It should be tried to sample which is similar to the actual selected

sample. Subject in the actual sample should not be used in the pretest
8 The pretest sample should be 1%-10% of the sample size

Reasons for pretest

i. Vague questions will be revealed as the respondents will interpret

them di昀昀erently
ii. Other de昀椀ciencies will be revealed e.g. unclear instructions, limited
space, wrong numbering
iii. Comments and suggestions from the respondents during pretest
will improve the questionnaire if incorporated
iv. Because few questions are analyzed, the method of analysis
appropriateness is tested

[Link] WAYS OF ADMINISTERING A QUESTIONNAIRE

a) Self administered questionnaire

● Respondents 昀椀ll questionnaires themselves which can be sent to
them by mail or by hand delivery

b) Researcher administered by questionnaire

● The researcher interviews the respondents using a questionnaire

● This is applicable when the respondents may not have the ability
to interpret the questions because of their educational levels
● Questions are read out to the respondents and their
options/choices are written down

c) Using internet
● Sampling and collection of data is done through the internet and
responses are given via e-mail or website.

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5.5.2 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

❖ This is a set of questions that the interview asks when interviewing

❖ It is used to orally obtain data from the respondent

❖ Cooperation is key to good results. Good rapport is a must

❖ Questions in the interview schedule can be structured or unstructured

Advantages of Interview

i. In depth data is obtained which cannot be obtained with

questionnaires
ii. It is precise in attaining speci昀椀c objectives
iii. There is no confusion as the interviewer can clarify the
questions
iv. It is more 昀氀exible than questionnaires
v. Can capture very sensitive and personal information by
honest and personal interaction between the researcher
and respondents
vi. You can get more information by probing
vii. Can also expose negative responses through interaction
and genuine conversation
viii. There is high response rate because it is not easy to refuse
to answer questions or completely ignore the researcher.

Disadvantages

i. Interview are expensive as time, travelling to meet respondents is

costly.
ii. It calls for high level communication and interpersonal skills. Which
some researcher may lack
iii. There could be interviews bias hence need training to avoid bias
iv. The interview may be subjective in that the subjects may be too
eager to please the researcher. Again the researcher may ask
questions to support his perceived notions
v. Because it is time consuming, the researcher may be forced to use
a small sample
vi. Respondents may have bias/prejudice. E.g. a昀툀uent researcher
going to a poor community may in昀氀uence the respondent’s reaction

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[Link] DATA COLLECTION DURING INTERVIEW

Data can be collected by;

i. Note taking- where the researcher takes notes as the subjects

answer questions asked. Should be done carefully not to upset the
respondent. Responses should be recorded the way they are
expressed
ii. Tape recording- responses are recorded in a video or a tape
recorder. One should be careful when recording.

5.5.3 STANDADIZED TESTS

❖ A standardized test is one that has consistency and uniform

procedures for administering scoring and interpreting the behavior of
the subjects. E.g. 1Q intelligence tests
❖ Graduate record examination (GRE) usually by students wishing to
pursue further studies abroad
5.5.4 OBSERVATION FORMS SCHEDULES OR CHECKLISTS
❖ These are used to record what the researcher observes during data
collection
❖ The behaviours to be observed must be de昀椀ned. The observer checks
o昀昀 each observed behavior as they occur
❖ Sometimes rating scales are used, responses are recorded and
evaluated
❖ Can be used by;

▪ Non participant observer or

▪ Participant observer

5.6 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN RESEARCH

❖ Data techniques must yield information that is relevant and correct.

❖ Reliability and validity are measures of this correctness and relevance

5.6.1 RELIABILITY

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⮚ This is the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent

results or data after repeated trials
⮚ Reliability is in昀氀uenced by random error ie deviation from true
measurement due to factors that have not e昀昀ectively been addressed
by the researcher
⮚ As random error increases, reliability decreases. Random error may
arise from:-
● Inaccurate coding

● Ambiguous instructions

● Interviewers fatigue

● Interviewees fatigue

● Interviewers bias

⮚ Random errors will always exist regardless of the design. Example of

error:-

● In a study done on the e昀昀ect of drug A on blood pressure; If

the BP machine used underestimates or overestimates the
readings, this will lead to unreliable result
⮚ There are 3 types of random errors:-
i. Error due to instrument inaccuracy
ii. Error due to inaccuracy of scoring by researcher
iii. Unexplained errors
⮚ The research process is aimed at reducing the random error and
increase reliability
⮚ There are four ways of assessing reliability of data each dealing with
di昀昀erent aspect of the concept

[Link] TEST-RETEST TECHNIQUE

⮚ This technique involves administering the same instrument twice to
the same group of subjects with a time lapse between (1-4 weeks)

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Steps

i. Select an appropriate group of subjects

ii. Administer the test to the subjects
iii. Keep all conditions constant, administer the same test to the
subjects
iv. Correlate the scores from both testing periods

Disadvantages of this technique includes subjects sensitization as subjects

may tend to remember their previous response and also di昀케culties in
establishing a reasonable period between the two test sessions

[Link] THE EQUIVALENT FORM TECHNIQUE

⮚ This uses two equivalent instruments

⮚ Speci昀椀c items in each form are di昀昀erent but are designed to measure
the same concept
⮚ The items are the same in number, structure and level of di昀케culty

Examples:

Using one scale to measure the weight of subjects today and after a week
using di昀昀erent scale to measure weight of the same subject

Steps

i. Sample di昀昀erent items from the domain indicators that measure

the variable
ii. Divide the items thus sampled into two groups or form
iii. Administer one form to a group of subjects randomly selected
iv. After a period of time administer the other form of instrument to
the same group keeping all the conditions constant
v. Correlate the scores obtained from the two forms of instruments.

⮚ Is commonly used in establishing the reliability of standardized test

data e.g. Intelligence tests, achievement tests, TOEFL, etc

[Link] SPLIT-HALF TECHNIQUE

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⮚ This requires only one testing session. An instrument is designed with

two parts.
⮚ Subject’s scores from one part are correlated with scores from the
second part.
⮚ Major advantage with this technique is that it eliminates advance error

Steps

i. Sample items from domain indicators that measure the

variable
ii. Administer the total test to an appropriate group
iii. At random, divide the scored items into two groups e.g. Odd
number items together and even numbers together
iv. Compute each subjects total score from the two groups of
items
v. Correlate the scores from the 2 groups of items for all
subjects

[Link] INTERNAL CONSISTENCY TECHNIQUE

⮚ This is determined from scores obtained from a single test
administered by the researcher to a sample of the subjects
⮚ Scores obtained in one item is correlated with scores obtained from
other items in the tool

5.6.2 VALIDITY

⮚ Validity is the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are

based on the research 昀椀ndings

Or

⮚ It is the degree to which results obtained from the analysis of the data
actually represent the phenomena understudy

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⮚ Validity is largely determined by the presence or absence of

systematic/non-random error. This is an error that has a consistent
boosting e昀昀ect on the measuring instrument
E.g. A faculty weighing scale overestimating subject weight.
⮚ This error is non-random because the obtained readings are either
always above or below the true score i.e. always in one direction

⮚ There are 3 types of validity in data

i. Construct validity
✔ This is the measure of the degree to which data obtained from
an instrument meaningfully and accurately represents or
re昀氀ects a theoretical concept.
Example
✔ Does a score of 90 points on a reading test actually re昀氀ect the
true reading ability of a pupil or would score in biology, chem.,
phyc, and language re昀氀ect ones attitude of being a good doctor
or nurse
✔ This approach is often used where no criteria or domain of
content is generally accepted as an adequate measure of a
concept. Concepts management, intelligence, motivation etc.
are all abstract, hypothetical concepts. They cannot be directly
observed but their e昀昀ects on the behavior of subjects can be
observed
✔ To measure construct validity, there must be a theoretical
framework regarding the concept to be measured
✔ The measurements are consistent with theoretical expectations

✔ If the measurements are consistent with theoretical

expectations, then the data have construct validity and vice
versa

To assess construct validity;

✔ Use two di昀昀erent instruments which measure the same
concept

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✔ Compute the validity coe昀케cient

I.e. data is obtained simultaneously from the same sample

ii. Content validity

This is a measure of the degree to which data collected using
a particular instrument represents a speci昀椀c domain of
indicators or content of a particular concept or it can be
de昀椀ned as the measure of the degree/extent to which a
measure represents all facets of a given construct
Example
✔ A test of arithmetic for standard 4 pupils would not
yield content valid data if items do not include all four
operations : multiplication, addition, subtraction and
division
✔ The usual procedure in assessing the content validity
of a measure is to ask experts in the particular 昀椀eld

iii. Criterion –related validity

⮚ This refers to the use of a measure in assessing subjects behavior in
speci昀椀c situations. If an instrument purports to measure performance
in a job, the subjects who score high in the instrument must also
perform well in their jobs
⮚ There are two types of criterion related validity

a) Predictive validity
● Refers to the degree to which obtained data predict future behavior of
subjects
● Job interviews should have high predictive validity to determine the
future performance of the candidate
b) Concurrent validity
● This refers to the degree to which data are able to predict behavior of
subjects in the present but not in the future
Example:

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A surgeon might use a measure to determine whether a patient

with acute abdomen is 昀椀t for surgery or not

5.6.3 INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY

Def.

● internal validity is the degree to which extraneous variables are

controlled in a study
✔ If extraneous variables have not been controlled for we will not
know the observed e昀昀ects on the dependent variable due to the
independent variable or to extraneous variables
✔ When extraneous variables are controlled for, the e昀昀ects can
accurately be attributed to independent variable. Therefore
such research study is said to have high internal validity.
✔ Randomization is an important component of the internal
validity of a study
External validity refers to the degree to which research 昀椀ndings
can be generalized to populations and environment outside the
experimental settings
If research 昀椀ndings are only applicable to the sample, the study
昀椀ndings are not externally valid and hence not generalizable to
other populations

[Link] Threats to internal validity

1. History
● Some researches especially physical and biological extend over a
period of time. During this extended period, events occur which have
in昀氀uence on the subject such that results may partly be due to
extraneous factors such factors in昀氀uence research 昀椀ndings and hence
internal validity is reduced
● Occurrence of events that in昀氀uence experimental units during the
course of the study is called history
Example

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✔ A researcher may want to determine the di昀昀erence between two

methods of therapy given to patients su昀昀ering anxiety, the research is
to extend for 3 months. During this period its possible some patients
may be involved in activities such as group support, hobbies,
psychology classes, which keep reduce anxiety. Therefore it will be
di昀케cult to determine the true di昀昀erence in these methods of therapy.

2. Maturation
● This refers to biological or psychological process which occur among
subjects in a relatively short time and which in昀氀uence research
昀椀ndings. This can be more intellectually enlightened, motivated,
fatigued, irritable or discouraged
● Maturation can be controlled by application of appropriate research
designs

3. Instrumentation
● This occurs when the measuring instrument is unreliable

● It can also occur when research assistants are not consistent among
themselves in observing, scoring or assessing the characteristics under
study

To avoid this, the researcher should develop accurate tools and standardize
data collection by holding a training session for all before data collection

4. Pretesting
● In a pretest and post test experimental research, pretest sensitizes the
subjects and therefore they tend to perform better in post test. The
better performance in post test is not due to the treatment alone, but
the pretest sensitized them
● A reliable method to avoid this problem is to use equivalent form tests

5. Statistical regression
● This is a problem where the selection of subjects is based on their
performance in the pretest for example giving a pretest to students
and selecting the top scores to take in a study. On completion they are

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given a post test. In this scenario, its likely that their mean score of
post test will be lower than the pretest mean score. If you selected the
lower scores and did the same as top scores, the mean score on post-
test for them will be higher than their mean score in the pretest
● The explanation in the above situation is that extreme scores tend to
have the highest errors of measurements.
● On retesting, external scores tend to regress towards the mean score

6. Attrition
● Attrition or experimental mortality refers to the situation where many
subjects drop out of the study before the study is completed.
● It may occur that only subjects with common characteristics are left in
the study. E.g. Less motivated and lower performers drop out and
leave well motivated and higher performers. This has some e昀昀ect as
biased sampling.
● Attrition interferes with original randomness of the sample and this
leads to errors.

7. Di昀昀erential selection
● This occurs when subjects are systematically selected into a treatment
group. This selection interferes with randomness of the sample
For example, if subjects are selected for a study because they
volunteered, comparing such a group to a control group of non-
volunteers introduces bias and error in the results. Volunteers are
more motivated and are more interested unlike non-volunteers.
● Di昀昀erential selection is a factor when a researcher uses a whole, in fact
group as a sample
● Commonly occurs in studies such as case study or where multi-stage
sampling technique has been used.

[Link] THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY

Various factors pose a threat to external validity or generalization of

research 昀椀ndings

These include:

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i. Accessible and target population

⮚ Subjects are sampled from the accessible population. If the sample,
accessible and target population are similar on salient characteristics,
then generalization will be made. If accessible and target population
are not similar in salient characteristics, then generalization of the
research 昀椀ndings are only limited to the accessible population.
⮚ This occurs when random sampling is not applied and hence, inference
to any population is not possible.

ii. Control of extraneous variables

⮚ Research controls the subjects of extraneous variables by including
them in the study. E.g. if gender is a possible extraneous variable in a
study, one may consider only one level of the variable (male or female
only). Strong control may increase the internal validity of a study but it
may, at the same time reduce the generalizability of the results
because such control may mean taking a smaller sample. A balance is
needed between internal and external validity.

iii. Pre-test treatment interaction

⮚ In a pre-test and pilot-test study, subjects may score higher on the
post-test due to the treatment given and pre-test sensitization.
⮚ Pre-test treatment interaction makes the results only applicable or
generalizable to the target population

iv. Explicit description of the variables

⮚ Study variables must speci昀椀cally be de昀椀ning both conceptually and
operationally.
⮚ To increase the degree to which results are generalizable to other
population, a researcher must operationalize the variables in such a
way that the measures have a meaning outside the setting of the
particular study.
⮚ Generalization of the research 昀椀ndings is made on the assumption that
there exists a universal language and a universal way of measuring a
particular variable.

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v. Non-randomness of the sample

⮚ Results from studies, which are done with non-random groups can only
be generalized to those groups because of the unrepresentativeness of
the sample used. Randomness increases representation

vi. Multi-treatment inference

⮚ Occurs when two treatments are applied to the same group but at
di昀昀erent times. One drug may have a long duration and therefore its
e昀昀ect may interfere with e昀昀ect of the other. In such situation it’s
di昀케cult to determine the di昀昀erence(true di昀昀erence) between the
treatments
⮚ The solution to this problem is to lengthen the duration between the
treatments. Alternatively randomly assigns subjects to two sub-groups
and administer the di昀昀erent treatment to the subgroups.

5.7 COMMON EFFECTS TO THE RESEARCH PROCESS

❖ These threatens both internal and external validities simultaneously

❖ These have nothing to do with the treatment

❖ These include;

5.7.1 The Hawthorne-e昀昀ect

❖ This refers to a situation where subjects awareness of being in an
experiment group motivates them to perform better.
❖ There must be in昀氀uential factor is not independent variable but the
awareness is being in the special groups
❖ Hawthorne e昀昀ect is particularly in observational studies

❖ One of the solutions is possible use hidden cameras to observe the

behavior of subjects during the study or the researcher can become a
participant in whatever the subject are to do.

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5.7.2 Placebo e昀昀ect

❖ Generally common in medical research. Drugs administered have a
chemical e昀昀ect and psychological e昀昀ect
❖ A placebo is a chemically inactive substance which tastes and has
colour of the drug in question
❖ Some subjects even when given a placebo report improvement e昀昀ect.

❖ This results not from the drug but psychological e昀昀ect

5.7.3 The John Henry e昀昀ect

❖ This refers to situations where control group perform much higher than
its usual average simply because they are placed in competitive
position with experimental group. E.g. manual tea pickers competing
with picking with machines

5.7.4 The Pygmalion e昀昀ect

❖ This refers to situations where subjects perform much better because
of researcher’s expectations
❖ Researchers may act or behave in away suggestive of his/her
expectations to the subjects. The subjects in an attempt to please the
researcher may work much harder than usual and give responses
which meet the researchers expectations
❖ This may be during the time of instructions

❖ To deal with this, the researcher should give minimal instructions

5.7.5 The Halo e昀昀ect

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❖ This is common in observational researcher

❖ It is rating subjects on some variable

❖ Halo e昀昀ect refers to a situation where the researcher rating are

in昀氀uenced by his/her initial impression of the subject or research is
in昀氀uenced by the subjects’ previous performance on another variable.

5.8 CONDUCTING A PRETEST/PILOT STUDY

⮚ Before you carry out the full scale data collection process, it is
important to conduct a trial to see whether the instruments planned for
collecting data are actually appropriate for the study and whether are
collecting the information you need.
⮚ To achieve this, you have to carry out a pilot study/pretest

⮚ Pretest or pilot study is de昀椀ned as;

● A small version of a proposed study conducted to re昀椀ne the

methodology or
● Is the process of carrying out preliminary study going through
the entire research procedure with a small sample. Or
● Pretest refers to a small scale trial of a particular research
component
⮚ In a pilot study, respondents chosen have characteristics to those to be
used during the actual research
⮚ The settings should be almost similar

5.8.1 PURPOSES OF A PRE-TEST/PILOT STUDY

A pilot study is done to;

i. To ensure that items in the data collection instruments are stated

clearly and have the same meaning to all research respondents(Re昀椀ne
where necessary)
ii. To determine whether the proposed study is feasible
iii. To identify any problems with the research design
iv. To assess the time taken to administer the research instruments

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v. To determine whether the sample is representative of the population

vi. To determine the e昀昀ectiveness of the sampling technique used
vii. To give the researcher the real experience in the 昀椀eld(with the
respondents, environment, methodology and instruments)
viii. Determine the human and 昀椀nancial resources requirement for the
study
ix. Determine the e昀昀ectiveness of the training given to research
assistants where necessary
x. Evaluate the procedure for data process and analysis

5.8.2 APPROPRIATE TIME TO CONDUCT A PILOT STUDY

⮚ It should be conducted before the actual full-scale study.

⮚ The advantages of conducting the pre-test before 昀椀nalizing the

proposal is that one can draft the work plan and budget based on
realistic estimates
⮚ Also one can revise the data collection tools he/she submits the
proposal for approval
⮚ Can be done before or after training research assistants or
immediately after
⮚ If it is not possible to do it in the above circumstances, e.g. the
proposal being drafted far from the 昀椀eld or no similar research settings
available close to the drafting site, the pretest can be done after
昀椀nishing the proposal. However it should be done long before the
actual 昀椀eld work to allow for a thorough revision of data collection
tools.

5.8.3 USING FINDINGS OF THE PRE-TEST/PILOT STUDY

⮚ Identify any sensitive or annoying items in the instrument and rectify

them
⮚ Any question that interviewers had to repeat and explain several times
to respondents need to be recti昀椀ed
⮚ Analyze the results of this pre-test and develop dummy tables

5.9 DATA COLLECTION

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❖ This is one of the major steps of the research process

❖ This is what determines the 昀椀ndings of the research study

❖ As discussed earlier, there are several tools that can be used in data
collection. The common ones are;
● Questionnaires

● Interview schedules

● Observation charts/checklists

● Standardized texts etc.

❖ The various methods of data collection which are closely linked with
the tools include, interviewing respondents, observing either as a
participant or non-participant, focused group discussions and
questionnaires
❖ Interviews can be face-to face or telephone interviews

❖ Reviewing existing records can also be used to collect data

❖ Data collection is de昀椀ned as ‘the precise systematic gathering of

information relevant to the research purpose or speci昀椀c objectives,
questions or hypotheses of a study

5.9.1 DATA COLLECTION PLAN

A plan for data collection can be made using the following steps

⮚ List tasks that have to be carried out and who should be involved.

⮚ Make a rough estimate of the time needed for di昀昀erent parts of the
study
⮚ Identify the most appropriate period to carry out the research

⮚ Schedule the di昀昀erent activities that have to be carried out each week
in a work plan

[Link] A data collection plan serves various purposes;

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i. One will have a clear overview of what tasks to be carried out,

who should perform and duration of these tasks
ii. You can organize both human and material resources for data
collection in the most e昀케cient way and minimize errors
iii. You will identify problems that will require modi昀椀cations to the
proposal

5.9.2 Stages of data collection

There are 3 stages

i. Permission to proceed
ii. Data collection
iii. Data handling

Stage 1: Permission to proceed

✔ Consent must be obtained from relevant authorities, individuals and

the community in which the project is to be carried out
✔ It may involve organizing meetings at national, provincial or provincial
level, district and at large
✔ Informed consent needs to be obtained especially in clinical studies

Stage 2: Data collection

✔ In this stage logistics for the research study is considered

✔ This entails who will collect what, when to collect, with what resources
and quality control

Who will collect what data?

✔ To allocate tasks, 昀椀rst list the tasks to be done and then identify who
could best implement each of the tasks

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✔ Research assistants may be needed to assist in data collection. They

need training and compensation
✔ Tasks needs to be clearly allocated

How long does it take to collect data?

The following should be considered in determining the duration of data

collection;

i. The time required to reach to the study area(s)

ii. The time needed to walk around and build rapport in the
community
iii. The time needed to locate the study units (persons, groups)
iv. The number of visits per study unit-in some studies it may be
necessary to visit informant a number of times
v. The time required for quality control of the collected data to
judge their validity
vi. The time required for preliminary analysis of the data
⮚ Having considered the mentioned points above, data collection plan
can be drawn up as follows;
● Calculate the number of interviews to be carried per day e.g.

● Calculate the number of days needed to carry out the

interviews e.g. 200 interviews and research team of 5. 5
people x4 interviews per day =2 interviews per day
No. of days=200/20=10 days for the interviews

● Calculate the time needed for other methods e.g. 5 days for
familiarization and rapport 5 days for focused group
discussions, 3 days for participant observation and so on.
● Determine how much time the research team can devote to
昀椀eld work
⮚ If the time required according to the calculation is more than time
available it may be necessary to recruit research assistants for certain
components of the study e.g. conducting interviews. Local health
workers, local sta昀昀 from related services (e.g. teachers) students and
village community health workers…..etc.
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Sequence of Data collection

⮚ Starts with already available data. Focus discussion groups which are
devised to focus the content of questionnaires, should be carried at
before the 昀椀nalization of the questionnaire.
⮚ If focus group discussions are to provide feedback on issues raised, in
larger survey, they should be conducted after preliminary analysis of
the questionnaire.

When data should be collected

⮚ The type of data and the demands of the project will determine the
actual period of data collection. One should consider:
i. The availability of the research team members and assistants
ii. The appropriate season(s) to conduct 昀椀eld work (if the
problem and season related)
iii. The accessibility and availability of the sample population
iv. Public holidays and weekends/vacation periods

Ensuring Quality

⮚ Data collected should be reliable and valid otherwise we may come out
with false or misleading conclusions
1. To ensure data quality, prepare a 昀椀eld work manual for the research
team as a whole. This should include;
✔ Guidelines on sampling procedures and what to do if
respondents are not available or refuse to cooperate
✔ A clear explanation of the purpose and procedures of the study
which should be used to introduce each interview
✔ Instruction sheet on how to ask certain questions and how to
record the answers
2. Ensure you select assistants with care. Choose those who are:
✔ From same educational level

✔ Knowledgeable concerning the topic and local conditions

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✔ Not biased concerning the topic

3. Ensure pretest of research instruments and research procedures with
the whole research team, including research assistants. Do not put
research assistants under too much pressure
4. Have an ongoing supervision of research assistants

Stage 3: Data Handling

✔ This includes the procedure for handling and storing data

✔ Use these guidelines;

a) Check that all data gathered are complete and accurate
b) Questionnaires will need numbering
c) Identify the person responsible for storing and where to store
d) Decide how data should be stored

5.9.3 Data entry

⮚ Data entry is keying the data into cards or disks so that analytic
software can process them. This starts by:
Deciding the format i.e. how you will organize data in a 昀椀le
● Design a code i.e. the rules by which the respondents
answers will be assigned values that can be processed by the
computer
● Actual coding i.e. responses are turned into standardized
categories you developed
● Data cleaning i.e. 昀椀nal check you make on the data for
accuracy, completeness and consistency prior to the onset of
analysis

6.0 WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Proposal – Is a document which details an intended activity e.g. a research
or project

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⮚ Once a proposal has been accepted by an institution, or a funding

agency, the writer of the proposal is obliged to follow the steps
outlined in the proposal.
⮚ A proposal demonstrates the researcher’s ability to think clearly about
the intended research or project
⮚ It should be straight forward document, uncluttered with extraneous
and irrelevant information
⮚ It should also be clearly organized, simple and presented in a logical
form
6.1 TYPES OF PROPOSALS

6.1.1 Research proposal

⮚ Here, the researcher proposes to undertake a piece of research on some

pertinent issue
⮚ Other research proposals may be academic oriented but are still aimed at
undertaking research to solve a problem. i.e. action oriented research
⮚ Though most components found in an academic research proposal would also
be relevant in one which is not, some section may not be relevant and could
be left out without a昀昀ecting the quality of the proposal e.g. not all action
oriented research proposals will require hypotheses or theoretical
backgrounds

6.1.2 Project proposal

⮚ This refers to a proposal which is not research oriented but is action-oriented
and aimed at undertaking certain activities to solve a speci昀椀c problem
⮚ The di昀昀erences between a project proposal and a research proposal focus on
expected outcome and implementation process
⮚ In a research project, the outcome will be data which can be used as a basis
of proposing a project or data which will contribute to knowledge and forms
the basis recommendations and action
⮚ In a project proposal, a speci昀椀c problem will have been solved

⮚ In a research proposal data collection and analysis is carried out and a

research report is written

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⮚ In a project proposal, proposed strategies and activities are implemented and

eventually evaluation will be conducted to ensure that the project’s
objectives were met.

6.2 COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

⮚ There are main sections of a proposal which are considered mandatory

and which should be included regardless of ones discipline
⮚ These are;
a) An introduction section which includes the background to the
problem, the statement of the problem, the purpose, objectives
and justi昀椀cation of the study
b) A literature review section where the researcher reviews
literature related to the topic under investigation
c) A methodology section which includes the description of the
research design, population, sample and sampling techniques,
data collection procedures and methods of analysis
d) A time schedule in which the researcher explains the time period
needed to carry out the research
e) A budget

6.2.1 Abstract
❖ A proposal abstract is one paragraph summary of what the
researcher intends to do
❖ It should be brief, precise and to the point

❖ It gives the reader an overview of what the problem is and how

the researcher intends to solve the problem through the proposed
research

6.2.2 Introduction
❖ It is a very important component of a proposal

❖ A well written introduction tells a lot about what to follow in the

rest of the proposal

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❖ An introduction section should include the background of the

problem, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study,
the objectives or research questions, hypotheses, rationale, or
justi昀椀cation of the study, the limitations and underlying
assumptions, the theoretical framework or conceptual model,
wherever possible, and theoretical de昀椀nition of terms

6.2.3 The background of the problem

❖ The researcher should broadly introduce the topic under investigation

❖ This is where a global, regional and national overview of the research

topic is brie昀氀y discussed. E.g. if the research topic is female education
in Kenya, the research should give an overview of the status of female
education globally, regionally (ie in Africa) and nationally (ie Kenyan
experience)
❖ This enables the reader to have an idea of what is happening regarding
the area under investigation.

6.2.4 The problem statement

❖ After describing the background of the problem the researcher should
narrow down the focus and state the problem under investigation. This
section is referred to as “the problem statement section”
❖ Here the researcher dates the problem under investigation e.g. high –
dropout rates among female pupils in primary schools.
❖ The researcher would elaborate on the consequences of girls dropping
out of school
❖ The problem statement should be brief and precise

❖ It should range from half a paragraph to two pages

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6.2.5 The purpose of the study

❖ A purpose is a broad statement indicating what the researcher intends
to do about the problem being investigated

6.2.6 Formats of writing the purpose of the study

❖ State the purpose of the study at the end of the problem statement
section
E.g “….based on the problem stated, the purpose of the study is
to……..”
❖ A purpose statement is declarative and uses verbs to describe the
intended task.
❖ The researcher decides to have a separate sub-section on purpose
statement

6.2.7 Objectives of the study

❖ Objectives should be stated clearly and should be testable

❖ The di昀昀erence between the purpose statement and the objectives is

that the purpose statement is broad, while the objectives are derived
from the purpose statement and are more speci昀椀c
❖ Objectives are very crucial in any research study mainly because
i. Objectives determine the kind of questions which will be
asked
ii. The objectives determine the data collection and analysis
procedures to be used
❖ It is therefore important for the objectives to be clear and
unambiguous and brief

6.2.8 Research questions

❖ Research questions refer to questions which a researcher would like
answered by undertaking the study

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❖ The di昀昀erence between research questions and objectives is that a

research question is stated in a question form while an objective is a
statement
❖ In a study proposal, either research question or objectives should be
included
❖ However it is possible to have objectives and research questions in a
proposal but only when the objectives are broader and the research
questions more speci昀椀c

6.2.9 Hypothesis
❖ It may be directional or non-directional

❖ A researcher is able to state a directional hypothesis when some

information on the phenomenon under study is available
❖ Such information is derived from past experience, literature review or
existing theories
❖ Some researchers may include hypothesis in their proposals simple
because is explanatory

6.2.10 Theoretical background or framework

❖ The researcher may be interested in ascertaining or testing a particular
theory or framework. E.g the argument behind the systems theory, is
that a system consists of various components or subsystems which
must function together for the system to work

6.2.11 Conceptual framework

❖ Refers to when a researcher conceptualizes the relationship between

variables in the study and shows the relationship graphically or
diagrammatically

6.2.12 Rationale or justi昀椀cation and signi昀椀cance of the study

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❖ This section highlights the reasons for conducting the study as well as
the importance of carrying out.

6.2.13 Limitations and Assumptions

7.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

7.1 QUALITATIVE DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

❖ Data presentation and analysis of qualitative research is quite di昀昀erent

from data collected when using quantitative methods
❖ This is because qualitative research uses words while quantitative uses
numbers
❖ The following steps could be used when presenting and analyzing
qualitative data:-

7.1.1 Organizing the data

❖ The data collected is usually large, therefore the researcher will
need to put all this information in a simple format. This is called
“clearing” the data
7.1.2 Creating categories; themes and patterns
❖ The disorganized and fragmented data needs to be put into
categories, themes and patterns. One can use research questions or
discussion topics
7.1.3 Analyzing and interpreting the data
❖ Once themes, categories and patterns have been identi昀椀ed, the
researcher then evaluates the data to determine its usefulness and
accuracy. Computer programmes can be used to generate themes
and categories
7.1.4 Writing the report
❖ Unlike in quantitative research where the report writing is done
after analyzing the data, in quantitative research techniques, the
report writing and the analysis go hand in hand
7.2 QUANTITATIVE DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

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7.2.1 Descriptive statistics

❖ This is the process of organizing, summarizing and visualizing

quantitative data
❖ The purpose of descriptive statistics is to help the researcher to
visualize and identify the patterns that may emerge from the data
collected. This in turn assists the researcher in making meaningful
conclusions from the results of the study.
❖ Type of statistics or indices used depend on type of variable and
scale of measurement (Nominal, ordinal, interval, or rational)

Main types of descriptive statistics

[Link] Measures of central tendency
❖ Measures of central tendency (mean, mode, median) are statistics that
describe the average, typical or most common value for a group of
data
❖ A measure of central tendency summarizes a frequency distribution by
the use of a single number
❖ There are 3 main types of commonly used measures of central
tendency

a. The mode
❖ Def: This is the most commonly occurring value or category among a
sample of subjects
❖ This is the only measure of central tendency appropriate for norminal
data. Mode may also be reported for ordinal, interval or ratio
❖ A set of data with one value that occurs most frequently is unimodal.
Two is biomodal and if more than two values occurring more frequently
it is multimodal. It is possible to have no mode. 358991011
9=mode

b. The median

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❖ This is the score that divides ranked scores into two equal parts, such
that half of the scores are larger than the median and the other half
are smaller
❖ Median is appropriate for ordinal, interval and ratio data in昀氀uenced by
extreme values. Media is frequently used in reporting average income
because extreme values do not a昀昀ect the median.

c. Mean
❖ This means the average of a set of scores or measurements

❖ It is most frequently used measure of central tendency,

❖ Is arrived at by adding all values and dividing by the total number of

values
❖ The mean is appropriate for interval and ratio data

❖ It is the most stable measure of central tendency for these levels of

data if the distribution is normal
❖ If the distribution is not normal and extreme values are present, the
mean will not represent an accurate picture of the distribution.
[Link] Measures of variability (measures dispersion)
❖ Measures of variability described how spreads out values are a
distribution of values. Variability is the distribution of scores around a
particular central score or value(usually the mean)
❖ Although measures of central tendency are important, sometimes it
may be interesting to know how spreads out the values are in the
distribution.
For example
The following are pulse rates of subjects 2 groups(A and B)
Group A-80,79,78,78,75 mean 390/5=78
Group B- 100,90,80,70,50 mean 390/5=78
For this example, the pulse rates for both is 78. However the pulse
of group A seems homogeneous, or alike, while group B are
heterogeneous, or dissimilar. This information is very important

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because the arithmetic mean is not appropriate to use in describing

group B or to use in comparing the two groups of pulse rates
The most common measures of variability are range, standard
deviation, variance, percentile and 2-5 scores

Types of measures of variability

i. Range
⮚ This is the di昀昀erence between the highest and the lowest value in the
group of values or scores in a distribution
⮚ This is determined by subtracting the lowest value from the highest
score. E.g scores 78,79,80,81,82,85. The range is 85-78
⮚ A small range signi昀椀es that scores are not spread out and vice versa

⮚ Range is used to gain a quick picture of the dispersion of data. Range

has limited usefulness because one extreme score can change the
range drastically
ii. Standard deviation and the variance
⮚ Standard deviation is de昀椀ned as the extent to which scores I a
distribution deviate from their mean average
⮚ The standard deviation therefore involves subtracting the mean from
each score to obtain the deviation
[Link] Frequency distribution
⮚ This is one of the simplest ways to present data

⮚ Frequencies are obtained by simply counting the occurrences of values

or scores represented in the data
⮚ Frequency distribution are appropriate for reporting all level of
data(nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)
⮚ In a frequency distribution, all values or scores are listed and the
number of times each appears is recorded
⮚ Values may be listed from the highest to the lowest or vice versa

⮚ Use slash method(////) and if range is small, say less than 20, each
score may be listed individually

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⮚ Groups of scores must be exhaustive (include all possible values) and

mutually exclusive(no overlapping of categories) e.g.
pulse rate tally frequency
60-65 /// 3
66-70 //// 5
71-75 //// // 7/15
⮚ Frequency distributions may be described according to their shape

⮚ They can be symmetrical or non-symmetrical

⮚ Symmetrical distributions are those in which both values of the

distribution are the same
⮚ Non-symmetrical distribution also called skewed are those in which
distribution has an o昀昀-centre peak
⮚ Skewness- is a measure of horizontal departure from normal
distribution. it can be positive skew or negative skew
✔ Positive skew-is where the tail of the measures of a particular
variable are low with very few high measures
✔ Negative skew- is where the tail of the distribution points to the
left i.e. the majority of the scores/measures of s variable are very
high and very few low measures
⮚ A variable that tends to be positively skewed is personal income while
few earn large income. An example of a negatively skewed distribution
would be age of people who have chronic illnesses. (a few young and
middle aged men and women have chronic illnesses, but many elderly
people have chronic conditions.
⮚ A part from skewness, another deviation from the standard normal
curve is kurtosis-is the vertical departure from the normal
⮚ This is the peakedness or the 昀氀atness of a curve

⮚ A curve that is peaked is called leptokurtic

⮚ A relatively 昀氀at curve is said to be platykurtic. The kurtosis of the

standard curve lies between the two extreme and is called mesokurtic.

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[Link] Characteristics of a Normal curve

1. It is well shaped with symmetrical distribution and the maximum

height being the mean
2. The mean, median, and mode are the same
3. Most values cluster around the mean
4. T
5. The tails of the curve never touch the base because the distribution is
theoretical, rather than empirical
N/B : normal distribution is frequently found in many happenings in
nature. Height and weight are normally distributed in the population

7.2.3 GRAPHIC PRESENTATION OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

⮚ A graph enables the reader to see the trend of the distribution easily
than is possible by simply looking at numbers in a frequency
distribution
⮚ A graph should be labeled on both the vertical and horizontal axes. It
should also have a title
⮚ Graphs commonly used to present data in research reports include:
histograms, frequency polygons, and bar charts.

[Link] Histograms
❖ Histograms consists of a series of adjacent bars whose x-axis represent
the number of subjects obtaining a particular score, number of
respondents belonging to a particular category. X-axis usually has the
scores

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❖ Exact limits are commonly used to construct a histogram hence the

bars are continuous with no space in between
Example below is a distribution scores from a test..
Score limits exact limits frequency (f)
91-100 90.5-100.5 1
81-90 80.5-90.5 3
71-80 70.5-80.5 6
61-70 60.5-70.5 10
51-60 50.5-60.5 14
__________
N=34

Figure 1. Histogram derived from the score above

[Link] Frequency polygons

❖ A polygon is a many sided 昀椀gure. To plot a frequency polygon, one
must establish the midpoint of the class interval
❖ The midpoint is established by summing up the lower and upper class
limits of each interval then divide by 2. The midpoint are then plotted
against the frequencies and the points are joined using straight lines
❖ A frequency polygon is a closed 昀椀gure and so the ends meet the
horizontal line one limit after the highest and score and one unit from
the lowest score
Example
Table 2: Distribution of scores from

Scores Midpoints Frequency

10-20 15 3
20-30 25 2
30-40 35 3
40-50 45 5

Figure 2: Frequency polygon constructed from data in table

2

[Link] Bar charts

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❖ Bar charts are preferred when data is discrete or categorized or when

the scale is nominal.
❖ This is because the categories in a nominal scale do not imply any
order
❖ Bar chart is very similar to the histogram except that spaces are left
between the bars to signify a lack of continuity or 昀氀ow between the
categories

Example

Table 3: Department enrolment

Subject category frequency(f) %frequency

Biology 5 10

Maths 20 40

Geography 20 40

History 5 10

------- ----------

N=50 100

Fig.3: Bar chart based on data presented in table 9

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[Link] Choosing a graph

❖ For discrete variables a bar chart is better

❖ Frequency polygons have an advantage that several polygons can be

superimposed with less crossing of lines
❖ This allows for comparisons among various distributions

❖ Histograms are easier to understand especially when only one

distribution is being represented
❖ However, histograms give the impression that subjects 昀椀tting within
each interval are evenly distributed over the interval which is not
always the case

[Link] Percentages
❖ A percentage is de昀椀ned as the proportion of a subgroup to the total
group or sample and range from 0% to 100%
❖ The size of the total group on which percentages is useful or valid
should be big. A minimum number should be at least 20

7.3 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

⮚ These are statistics that use sample data to make decisions or
“inferences” about a population inferential statistics are concerned
with determining how likely it is for results obtained from a sample to
results expected from the entire population
⮚ There are many statistical techniques used in testing hypotheses

⮚ The commonest ones include:

i. Correlation – used to analyze the degree of relationship
between two variables. There are various correlation
techniques that are normally used
ii. Chi-square(x2) – is a statistical technique which attempts to
establish relationship between two variables both of which are
categorical in nature

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e.g. to test the hypotheses that there is a relationship

between gender and number of road accidents caused by
drivers, here” gender” is categorized as “male” and “female”
and no. of accidents is categorized as “no”, “few” and “many”

iii. Regression- this is used when a researcher is interested in

昀椀nding out whether an independent variable predicts or given
dependent variable
⮚ Regression the researcher can deal with one dependent variable and
one dependant variable (simple regression) or a group of variables
together and a dependant variable (multiply regression)
Example of simple regression
✔ A researcher might be interested in 昀椀nding out whether
education predicts the 昀椀nancial status of households
✔ Education is independent variable while 昀椀nancial status is the
dependent variable
✔ Other inferential statistics include analysis of variance(ANOVA)

N/B

The choice of test of hypotheses depends on;-

i. Sample size- some tests cannot be used if sample is too small
e.g. regression
ii. Types of variables and measurements- most data analysis
procedures are suitable for variables measured at interval or
ratio scales. Some are suitable for variables measured at
ordinal or nominal scales
iii. Types of research design- for example, data from
experimental study that compares di昀昀erences between two or
more groups is best analyzed using analysis of
variance(ANOVA)
⮚ Relationships and predictions among variables are best determined
using correlation and regression techniques.

7.4 RESEARCH ERRORS

There are two types of errors that can occur:-

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i. Type I Error
✔ This occurs when there is rejection of null hypotheses when its
true e.g. there is no relationship between tribe and level of
intelligence if this is true and you reject it, you have committed
a type I error
ii. Type II error
✔ Occurs in acceptance of null hypothesis when it is false e.g if
the above statement is false and you accept it then you have
committed a type 2 error.

8.0 COMMUNICATING THE RESEARCH FINDINGS

❖ The signi昀椀cance of conducting research is to communicate and share

the research 昀椀ndings.
❖ There are several ways of communicating research 昀椀ndings.

❖ These are:-
i. A written report for academic purposes e.g. thesis or
desertion which are requirements for obtaining a certain
academic level
ii. A written report prepared for some managers and policy
implementers-present a clear and detailed report with no
academic jargons
iii. A written report sent as an article for publication in
referred/non-referred journals
iv. Presentation of the research 昀椀ndings in workshops, seminars
and conferences

8.1 PRESENTING RESEARCH RESULTS AT PROFESSIONAL

CONFERENCES

❖ Because publication in journals which is referred takes long (up to 3

years), presentation of research 昀椀ndings is more rapid in distribution of
study results
❖ Presentation should be in nursing conferences as well as
interdisciplinary conferences

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❖ Research results can be presented at professional conferences in two

ways
a) Oral presentation
b) Poster presentation- has become more popular
❖ Potential participants are contacted through “call for abstracts”

❖ The call for abstracts is a request for a summary for a study that the
researcher wishes to present at a conference
❖ These requests are published in professional journals and distributed
to educational institutions, health care agencies and potential
participants from professional organizations notices of research
❖ Conferences are generally distributed 6-12 months before the event.

❖ Each conference or seminar provide guidelines for presenters and for

submission of abstracts
❖ Abstract length varies from 50-1000 words, but many have 200-300
word limitations
❖ It contains the purpose, research question(s), hypothesis, design,
methodology, major 昀椀ndings and conclusions
❖ Generally, those selected to participate receive no pay and are
required to cover their own travel expenses
❖ In some cases conference registration fee is waived or reduced for
participants

8.2 PRESENTING A RESEARCH PAPER

❖ An oral presentation of a research report is usually referred to as paper

presentation. Paper because it has been written on paper and is read
by the investigator.
❖ If principal investigator is unable to attend the conference, a co-
investigator or another person familiar with the study presents the
paper.
❖ Presenting research results at a conference has advantages

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i. The researcher presents 昀椀ndings that are current/recent

unlike publication that lags behind for up to 3 years
ii. The researcher has an opportunity to interact with those
people who are interested in the study and will be able to
locate other researchers who are studying the same or similar
phenomena
❖ The presenter is usually given 10-15 minutes. Sometimes additional
time is allocated for questions or during break, other questions are
dealt with.
❖ Format for oral presentation is the same as that of the journal but
condensation of material is done to 昀椀t the time given.

8.3 PRESENTING A RESEARCH POSTER

❖ Has become popular. This is a visual method of presentation

❖ During a poster session, the presenters usually remain with their

posters and interact with viewers
❖ Posters sessions generally are held during research conferences where
oral presentations are also given. 1-2 hours is devoted to posters.
Some conferences may have only poster presentation
❖ Poster presentation sessions are an excellent way for beginning
research to ‘get their feet wet” is not scary as standing up in front of
an audience and orally discussing a study
❖ Sizes of posters vary according to di昀昀erent research conference
requirements. Common size is 4 feet by 8 feet
❖ Posters should be carefully constructed, colour combinations should be
used to be attractive
❖ Posters should contain the research problem, hypothesis, research
question , description of the sample, methods, 昀椀ndings, major
conclusions
❖ Do not put too much material on a poster, diagrams, graphs, and
tables are e昀昀ective means of presenting certain aspects of the study
such as 昀椀ndings

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9.0 PUBLICATION OF A JOURNAL ARTICLE

● The growth of the nursing profession depends on the ability of its

members to share a body of knowledge
● Nursing research is the method of building the knowledge and
publications are the major medium for sharing this knowledge
● Research should be conducted with the idea of publication in mind

● A few journals pay authors a per-page fee. Generally authors do not

receive any compensation
● Authors may pay for any revisions they may wish to be made on the
galleys received
● Galley proofs are sheets of paper showing how the article will appear
in type set format
● Some journals provide an author with several complimentary copies of
the issue in which the article appears
● When an author receives an acceptance letter from a journal, an
appropriate date or month of publication is usually included.(1 month-3
years lag)

9.1 PREPARING THE ARTICLE

● Length of journal varies but most editions prefer articles of 10-15 typed
page.
● The format and sections vary according to the journal parts including
introduction, literature review, methods, 昀椀ndings and discussion

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9.2 SELECTING A JOURNAL

● Selecting an appropriate journal is an important decision

● Check local and international journal (online) that can publish the
research 昀椀ndings
● They could be nursing only or nursing and allied journals

● The nurse author should not forget magazines designed for the general
public
● The journal can be referred and non-referred journal.

● Referred journal is one in which subject experts, chosen by journals

editorial sta昀昀, evaluate manuscripts
● Non referred journal- is one that uses editorial members of sta昀昀 or
consultants to evaluate manuscripts

9.3 SENDING QUERY LETTERS

● Before submitting an article at a journal, it may be wise for the author

to 昀椀rst determine the journals interest in the manuscript
● This is done by a letter of inquiry called query letter

● A query letter contains an outline of a manuscript and important

information about the manuscript that an author sends to an editor to
determine the editor’s interest in publishing the material
● It should be addressed to the editor by name

● On receiving the query, the editor may;

✔ Request for submission of manuscript or

✔ Suggestions for revision in the manuscript then submission or

✔ Discourage submission of the manuscript

● Many journals require a signed statement that the manuscript is not

being considered by any other journal

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9.4 REASONS FOR REJECTION OF THE MANUSCRIPT

i. Poorly written manuscript

ii. Poorly developed idea, not consistent with purpose of journal
iii. Methodology problems
iv. Content undocumented, content inaccurate e.t.c.

10.0 UTILIZATION OF NURSING RESEARCH FINDINGS

● The use research 昀椀ndings in nursing practice is called research

utilization
● In the past, many actions of nurses have been based on tradition or
authority. This is no longer acceptable in this day of evidence-based
practice. Nurses should be able to justify the discussions they make
and the care they give
● Barriers to the utilization of nursing research have been identi昀椀ed with
means to bridge them

These barriers include:-

i. Nurses lack of knowledge

● Many nurses are unaware of many research 昀椀ndings. Role models in
research for less experienced stu昀昀, create nursing research
department, creation of formal nursing committee and presentation of
research grand round are just but few suggested ways to improve
utilization.

ii. Nurses negative attitudes

● Negative attitudes towards research has contributed to underutilization
of research 昀椀ndings

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● Can be addressed by having role models in clinical area who value

research, have research courses at all levels of education and also
having faulty with positive attitudes who help students early in their
careers.

iii. Inadequate dissemination of research 昀椀ndings

● Most nursing research studies are never published or presented at
research meetings or workshops
● Also those that are published or presented are not written or verbally
presented at a level where the practicing nurse can understand the
昀椀ndings.
● Many practicing nurses complain about their ability to understand
articles in the research journals, language is technical and length for
researchers rather than for clinicians
● Researchers in academic settings are sometimes rewarded for
publication in practice journals
● Nurses need to publish in popular journals, make research 昀椀ndings
understandable. Also consider publication and presentation for the lay
media to counter this problem
iv. Lack of institutional support
● Nurses frequently perceive that there is little institutional support for
nursing research
● To remove this barrier, nurses should get time o昀昀 to attend nursing
conferences; institutions should make available current journals
available in the institution’s library and allocating time for nurses to
read research reports during the workday.

v. Findings are not ready for use in practice

● Study 昀椀ndings is not something that can be crammed over night and
ingested in the morning
● No study 昀椀ndings should be implemented if the study has not been
replicated in several clinical settings, with similar results being found

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● For research 昀椀ndings to be ready for use in practice, the 昀椀ndings must
have been replicated at least once and demonstrated to be true
with”red” patients as well with “normal” subjects

11.0 THE ROLE OF THE NURSES IN RESEARCH

There are many roles that nurses can assume in association with research
projects. These include;

1. Principal investigator
● Nurses can serve as principal investigators in scienti昀椀c
investigations. However one needs special research
preparations nurses can also conduct small-scale survey study.
2. Member of a research team
● Nurses can serve as members of research team. They may act
as data collectors or administer the experimental intervention
of the study
● As nurses participate in research interest in research increases
and the enthusiasm to conduct their own research grow
3. Identi昀椀er of researchable problems
● Nurses of all levels, have responsibility of trying to identify
areas of needed research
● Nurses at the bedside are particularly well situated to identify
patient related researchable problem

4. Evaluator of research 昀椀ndings

● Every nurse should be involved in the evaluation of research
昀椀ndings. As research consumers, nurses have the obligation to
become familiar with research 昀椀ndings and determine the
usefulness of these 昀椀ndings in the practice area
● Beginning researches should antique research articles with
experienced researchers and eventually on their own

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● Evaluation of research is not an easy task and one needs to

acquire some of the skills needed to antique research articles
and reports
5. User of research 昀椀ndings
● After evaluating research 昀椀ndings, nurses should use relevant
昀椀ndings in their practice
● The primary goal of nursing research is improved care to
patients/clients
6. Patient/client advocate during studies
● All nurses have the responsibility to act as patient/client
advocates when their patient/clients are involved in research
● The advocacy involves making sure that the ethical aspects of
research are upheld
● Nurses might help in explaining a study to potential participants
before study begins
7. Subject in studies
● Nurses can act as subjects in research. Issues about nurses
welfare or work place issues such as motivation among others
can be done nurses being subjects of study

12.0 WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS

The research report contains:

⮚ Title

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⮚ Dedication(optional)

⮚ Abstract

⮚ Table of contents

⮚ List of tables

⮚ List of 昀椀gures

⮚ List of abbreviation and acronyms

⮚ Executive summary (optional)

⮚ Introduction

⮚ Literature review

⮚ Methodology

⮚ Results and discussion

⮚ Summary, conclusions and recommendations

⮚ References

⮚ Acknowledgement

⮚ Appendices

12.1 TITLE
● Should be short and simple-12-15 words maximum

● Should contain key words that others will use when searching
the topic
● It gives the reader some initial information about the area of
research the report has covered
● It should give the major variables of the research, the target
population and possibly the geographical location e.g. the
research

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● It is the selling point as it will determine whether someone will

read your article
● The authorship must be only

● Someone who contributed to the design, data collection,

analysis or interpretation of the 昀椀ndings
● Contributed to the writing or editing of the 昀椀nal
manuscript
● Agrees with the 昀椀ndings and is willing to stand up in
public and defend the work

12.2 Dedication (optional)

● Some researchers dedicate their work to persons whom they see
as special to their lives
● May be spouse, children, parents or very dear friends

● Some researchers give reasons for their dedication

12.3 Abstract

● Is a re昀氀ection of the salient 昀椀ndings of the research study(it is an

overview)
● It contains purpose of the study, the population studied, major
results and conclusion of the study
● Should not be more than half a page

12.4 Table of contents

● A table of contents is like a map that guides reader in locating

various sections of the research report
● It contains the chapter teaching, main headings and subheadings
and corresponding page of each in the body of the document
● It is necessary for location of desired section quickly

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12.5 List of tables

● This list of tables has a format like that of the table of contents.

● The number and title of each table appearing in the body of report
is listed together with corresponding page number
● Used for easy tracing of tables

12.6 List of 昀椀gures

● Figures such as graphs, charts, diagrams and photographs may be
used in research
● Their list as they appear in the body of the report

● The list should clearly give the number and title of the 昀椀gure and
its number
12.7 List of abbreviations and acronyms
● These abbreviations are used especially where a ward or a group
of words is used repeatedly
● The abbreviations and acronyms should be listed and explained in
full
● They should be used only when necessary

● Refer on guidelines on use of abbreviations

12.8 Executive summary(Advisable to include)
● Is short version or a summary of the research report provides a
picture of the entire document
● A good executive summary begins with a clear and brief
statement of the problem
● Details from the body of the report are then presented in brief and
the summary ends with conclusions and recommendations
● Use of bulletins and bolded subheading helps to make summary
reader-friendly
● Avoid technical terms in the executive summary

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12.9 Introduction

● This has several components that include:

● The background of the study

● The problem statement

● Objectives

● Hypotheses

● Research questions

● Limitations of the study

12.10 Literature Review

● This provides the needed support to the researcher rationale for
undertaking research in a certain area
● The critique of 昀椀ndings from other studies done in related areas

● Literature review assists the researcher in making a strong care

for the study’s objectives, research questions or hypotheses
● Literature review should be relevant to the topic

12.11 Methodology
● It gives regarding the procedures used in conducting the study.

● Issues discussed under methodology include the population,

sample, sampling techniques, the research design, instruments
or tools used in data collection, measurement of variables and
techniques to be used in such tests
● Give enough details regarding the procedures used in conducting
the study should be precise enough to enable other researchers
to replicate your study

12.12 Results and Discussion

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● Main purpose of the results and discussion is to present the

results of the data analysis in a systematic way
● The data analysis is done 昀椀gures and tables are usually used

● Computers and statistical packages has made data analysis

easier and faster
● In this section, it is advisable to start with a short introduction
that describes the general procedure followed in analyzing the
data
● State the objectives or hypothesis of the study

● Key pointers on writing the results and discussion are

✔ Present descriptive results of analysis 昀椀rst. They include

frequencies, percentages, means, modes, median, and
standard deviation e.t.c.
✔ Then present the results of hypotheses tests if any. These
tests inform whether results can be generalized to the target
population
✔ It may not be possible to present every result of the analysis.
Select the most important 昀椀ndings for reporting. Be guided by
objectives and hypotheses
✔ Not every result or table generated is presented in the report
objectives and hypotheses of the study should guide you to
select the most important ones
✔ Graphs, charts and other usual presentations of the data
should be included in the results and discussion section of the
report if they add value to the content
✔ It is very important for the researcher to point out whether
昀椀ndings are supported by other studies discussed in the
literature review section. If 昀椀ndings contradict other studies,
point out giving possible reasons for such outcome
● The discussion section therefore conveys the meaning of the
昀椀ndings to the reader and provides an important linkage to other

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sections or components of the report such as objectives,

hypotheses, research questions or theoretical/framework and
existing literature

12.13 Summary, conclusions and recommendations

● Summary reminds and informs the reader about the purpose of
study, process used to collect and analyze data and the major
昀椀ndings of the study
● A summary must re昀氀ect as accurately as possible the body of
ones report.
● Conclusion answers the questions that sparked the collection
and analysis of data
● In including the report, it is necessary to discuss the practical
application and implications of the 昀椀ndings….
● Implications are usually targeted to stakeholders e.g. health
policy makers
● The summary and conclusions should lead logically to your
recommendations must be consistent with the purpose of the
study, its objectives, the evidence presented by the data and
interpretations given
● Recommendations should be practical and achievable

● Common recommendations that researchers often make include;

✔ Areas of further research, with the question in that study

that remain unanswered, hence ought to be explored
further
✔ Methodology issues, that could be addressed and re昀椀ned
to improve future research in that area of the study

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✔ Actions that should be taken to address the problem based

on the research 昀椀ndings e.g. interventions/projects

12.14 References
● The researcher should give credit to authors of any work or
materials quoted from or rejected to by listing them
● Generally, a reference gives the name of the author, year of
publication of the document, the title of the book or journal
paper and the publisher

12.15 Acknowledgement
● Research process takes a lot of time, money and energy. A
researcher may seek help from professional colleagues,
respondents, research assistants etc.
● One can also seek materials from institutions or organizations

● The researcher should acknowledge individuals and

organizations that provide assistance
● But because they can be many, the researcher should maintain
only a few by names to keep the acknowledgement section as
short as possible.
12.16 Appendices
● The appendix section of the report contains information that the
researcher does not seem necessary to include in the body of
the report
● The appendix contents include:-

✔ Instruments of data collection

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✔ Statistical tables from data analysis

✔ Correspondence related to the study e.g. letters of consent to

participate in the study
✔ Letters of approval to conduct the research

✔ Research persists and terms of reference if any.

REFFERENCES

i. Mugenda Olive, Mugenda Abel 2003, research method Quantitative &

Qualitative approaches revised label graphics services Nairobi.

ii. [Link]
DGIGPWinningProposal-PSIGPPropositionGagnante [Link]

iii. Simon Peyton Jones and Alan Bundy. Writing a good grant proposal.
[Link]

iv. Byrne DW. Publishing your medical research paper. Baltimore, Williams
& Wilkins, 1998:

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v. Farquhar CM. Evidence-based medicine and getting research into

practice. In: O’Brien PMS, Pipkin FB, eds. Introduction to research
methodology for specialists and trainees.

vi. London, Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Press,

1999: 84–93.

vii. Friedland DJ, ed. Evidence-based medicine: A framework for clinical

practice. Stamford,
Appleton & Lange, 1998.

viii. McAlister FA, Straus SE, Guyatt GH, Haynes RB, for the Evidence-based
Medicine
Working Group. Users’ guides to the medical literature XX.

ix. Integrating research evidence with the care of the individual patient.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 2000,283: 2829–2836.

x. Sackett DL, Straus SE, Richardson WS, Rosenberg W, Haynes RB.

Evidence-based
medicine: how to practice and teach EBM, 2nd edition. Edinburgh, New
York, Churchill Livingstone, 2000.

xi. World Health Organization Department of Reproductive Health and

Research, 2002. The
WHO Reproductive Health Library, No. 5 [CD-ROM]. Geneva
(WHO/RHR/02.1).

Glossary of terms

● Abstract An abbreviated summary of a research paper, generally at

the beginning of the paper.

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● Action research A style of research in which the researchers work

with the people and for the people, rather than undertake research on
them. The focus of action research is on generating solutions to
problems identi昀椀ed by the people who are going to use the results of
research.

● Analytical study An observational study that describes associations

and analyses them for

possible cause and e昀昀ect.

● Alternative hypothesis The hypothesis that the researcher is testing

in the study. In scienti昀椀c methodology, we start with the assumption

that it is not true until proved otherwise, by rejecting the null
hypothesis.

● Assignment The process in an experiment where the researcher

allocates subjects to two or more groups, trying to achieve having

groups as identical as possible to allow a valid comparison of the
results. Matching and random assignment are the two most common
methods.

● Bar or column charts A graphic method of describing the data,

where the frequency of a

particular category is re昀氀ected in the height of the bar in the graph.

● Bias If the study sample is not representative of the population, the

inference we make from the result may be misleading.

● Blinding A randomized controlled trial may be blinded if participants

in the trial are likely to change their behaviour in a systematic way that
may in昀氀uence the outcome of the study when they are aware of which
intervention they receive. The term “masking” is often used instead of
“blinding”.

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● Case–control study A type of observational analytical longitudinal

retrospective study in which a group of subjects with a speci昀椀ed

outcome (cases) and a group without that outcome (controls) are
identi昀椀ed. Investigators then compare the extent to which each subject
was previously exposed to the variable of interest, such as risk factor,
a treatment, or an intervention.

● Central tendency The average (mean), middle (median) or most

common (mode) score for

numerical data in a frequency distribution.

● Cluster sampling A type of random sampling, based 昀椀rst on the

random selection of certain

subgroups, from which the sample can be taken.

● Coding A method of analysis of qualitative data obtained for example

in interviews, where
categories are labelled to facilitate computer analysis and examination
of relationships.

● Cohort study The term used in clinical and epidemiological research

to describe a longitudinal prospective observational study.

● Consecutive sampling A sampling procedure in which subjects are

selected by taking every

individual that presents over a speci昀椀ed period of time.

● Continuous variables Data which are measured on a continuous

scale. They are numbers that can be added, subtracted, multiplied and
divided.

● Cross-sectional study An observational study design in which

measurements are made on a

single occasion.

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● Descriptive statistics Statistics designed to summarize and describe

characteristics of the data. Descriptive statistics helps us to make

sense of a large volume of data.

● Descriptive study An observational study that simply describes the

distribution of a
characteristic.

● Directional research hypothesis The research hypothesis outlining

a relationship may be
directional or non-directional. For example, a relationship between
smoking and cardiovascular disease can only be directional. It is
expected in the hypothesis that it will increase cardiovascular disease.
The relationship between oral hormonal contraceptives and certain
disease conditions can be non-directional. The disease conditions may
increase or decrease as a result of oral hormonal contraceptive use.

● Discrete or discontinuous data Numerical variables that are not

measured on a continuous
scale.

● Experimental or intervention study A study design in which the

investigators test the e昀昀ect of an intervention on the events taking

place in the study.

● External validity The extent to which the results of the study sample

may be generalized to the population from which the sample was

withdrawn; also called generalizability.

● Focus group discussion A method of qualitative research used when

information and insights will be better gained from the interaction of a

group than from in-depth interviews with individuals.

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● Frequency distribution The way in which scores within a given

sample are distributed.

● Frequency distribution curve A graphic method for summarizing

data and looking at them, in which each variable is plotted against the
frequency with which it is found.

● Frequency distribution table A table that gives the frequency with

which a particular value

appears in the data.

● Hawthorne e昀昀ect An e昀昀ect which results in the improvement of

subjects’ performances through being observed and/or social contact.

It is an example of a placebo e昀昀ect.

● Histogram A method of plotting frequency distributions.

● Hypothesis The research hypothesis is a tentative statement that can

be tested by a scienti昀椀c research design.

● Incidence Incidence rates relate the number of new cases of a

condition in a population within a time period.

● Independent or input variables Variables that have values that are

autonomous of the dependent or outcome variables. Because

independent variables precede dependent variables, they are often
called predictors. In epidemiology, independent variables are often
called risk factors or exposure variables.

● Inference A generalization made about a population from the study of

a subset or sample of that population.

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● Informed consent An ethical requirement for participation in a

research study, indicating that a competent person, in possession of all

the relevant information, freely agrees to participate.

● Internal validity The degree to which the investigator’s conclusions

correctly describe what

actually happened in the study. It means that within the con昀椀nes of the
study, results appear to be accurate, the methods and analysis used
stand up to scrutiny, and the interpretation of the investigators
appears supported.

● Inter-observer reliability The extent to which observers rating or

measuring a particular
phenomenon agree with each other.

● Intra-observer reliability The extent to which an observer rating or

measuring a particular
phenomenon agrees with her/his rating or measurement when
presented with the same task on two di昀昀erent occasions.

● Likert format A format for closed-response questions used to elicit

attitudes of the respondents to a certain statement. The respondent

chooses from among 昀椀ve categories: strongly agree, agree, undecided,
disagree, strongly disagree.

● Literature Previous research done in the area under study.

● Longitudinal study An observational study design in which

measurements are made over a

period of time.

● Longitudinal prospective study An observational study design in

which the investigators follow subjects for future events.

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● Mean The average of a group of scores. The mean is derived by

summing up the individual values and dividing by the total number of

measurements.

● Median The median of a distribution is a midpoint at which one half of

the observations fall below and one half fall above the value.

● Mode The most frequent measurement in a distribution.

● Normal distribution curve A bell-shaped curve of the frequency

distribution of the data.

● Null hypothesis In scienti昀椀c methodology, we do not test the

research hypothesis directly.

● Instead, we start with an assumption that there is no di昀昀erence or

association between the

variables compared. This is called the null hypothesis (H0). If statistical
analysis rejects the null hypothesis, it means that the alternative
hypothesis is probably true, and that there a di昀昀erence between the
group or a relationship between the variables.

● Numerical variables Data expressed in numbers.

● Objectivity Objective measures are made in a process involving a

minimum amount of human interpretation, for example measurement

of height.

● Observational study A study design in which the investigators

observe and record events taking place in the study.

● Open-ended question A question asked without providing a pre-

de昀椀ned set of responses to

select from.

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● Ordinal categorical data Categorical data in which the variables can

be ordered one above

another. An example of ordinal categorical data is the number of
children a woman has.

● P value The probability that a di昀昀erence or an association as large as

the one observed could have occurred by chance alone.

● Pie chart A graphical method of representing the frequency

distribution of a set of categorical data in the shape of a pie.

● Pilot study A preliminary study to test the feasibility of the protocol,

before implementing the study proper. It may also be called “pre-test”.

● Placebo e昀昀ect The phenomenon where, in an intervention study,

subjects receiving, without knowing, an inert drug, show an

improvement or perception of improvement in their condition, probably
due to their expectations.

● Population An entire set of persons, animals, objects or events which

the researcher intends to study.

● Pre-test A preliminary study to test the feasibility and

appropriateness of a questionnaire, before implementing the study

proper.

● Prevalence The overall occurrence of a particular condition in a

speci昀椀c population at a speci昀椀c point of time.

● Probability The chance or likelihood of an event happening.

Probability may vary in value from 0 (no chance) to 1 (certain).

Researchers have to set the level of probability/certainty they are
willing to accept for their 昀椀ndings.

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● Proposal A document written for the purpose of obtaining funding for

a research project.

● Quality assurance A system to ensure that the study is performed

and the data are generated, recorded and reported in compliance with
the protocol, good clinical practice and national regulations.

● Qualitative methods A research approach that emphasizes the non-

numerical data and

interpretive analysis.

● Quantitative methods A research approach that emphasizes the

collection of numerical data or data than can be quanti昀椀ed, and

statistical analysis.

● Questionnaire A means of collecting data from people where they

provide written responses to a set of questions, either in their own

words (open-ended questions), or by selecting from among pre-de昀椀ned
answers (closed response questions).

● Random sampling A sampling procedure in which a sample is drawn

from a population such that each member of the population has had an
equal chance of selection. Random sampling is not haphazard
sampling.

● Range In a group of scores, the range is the di昀昀erence between the

maximum and minimum scores.

● Ratio A numerical expression of the relationship between one set of

frequencies and another. An example is the ratio of males to females

in a sample.

● Rate A numerical expression of the frequency of a condition in a given

population measured in a speci昀椀ed period of time.

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● Reliability The extent to which a test or measurement result is

reproducible.

● Representative sample A sample that accurately re昀氀ects the

characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. It is a precise

miniaturized representation of the proportion of elements of the
population.

● Retrospective study An observational study design in which the

investigators study present and past events.

● Sample A subset selected for the study from the larger population.

● Sampling error The discrepancy between the values obtained from

the relatively small sample and the larger population from which the
sample was drawn.

● Selection bias A systematic di昀昀erence between people who are

selected for a study and those who are not selected.

● Standard deviation A measure of the dispersion or variability of a

group of scores.

● Strati昀椀ed random sampling A sampling procedure in which the

researcher tries to ensure that important subgroups in the population

are adequately represented.

● Structured interview An interview in which the questions are

generally pre-de昀椀ned, asked in a 昀椀xed order and recorded in writing.

● Subjective measures Measures involving a substantial degree of

human interpretation, for

example ratings of pain.

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● Systematic sampling A sampling procedure in which subjects are

selected by a simple periodic process, for example, selecting every

second or third patient.

● Validity The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to

measure.

● Variability The extent to which a group of scores varies or is spread

out. This is usually described by a descriptive statistic such as the

range or standard deviation.

● Variable Statistical term for the score in data.

● Variance A measure of the dispersion or variability of a group of

scores.

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