It looks like you've provided an image of a list of problems from a textbook, likely in the field of

fluid mechanics or thermodynamics, and you've simply asked for the "Solution".
Since there are 16 distinct conceptual questions (1-1C through 1-16C), I'll provide a concise
answer for each one.

Solutions to Conceptual Problems

1-1C: Internal vs. External Flow
The flow of air over the wings of an aircraft is external flow. The air flows over a surface that
is immersed in an unbounded fluid. The flow of gases through a jet engine is internal flow.
The gas is completely bounded by the walls of the engine duct/casing.

1-2C: Incompressible Flow and Fluid

●​ Incompressible flow is a type of flow where the density (\rho) of the fluid remains
nearly constant throughout the flow field.
●​ An incompressible fluid is a fluid whose density doesn't change with pressure (e.g.,
liquids).
●​ No, the flow of a compressible fluid does not necessarily have to be treated as
compressible. If the flow velocity is low (generally Mach number, M < 0.3), even a
compressible fluid like air can be modeled as having constant density, and thus the flow
can be approximated as incompressible.

1-3C: Internal, External, and Open-Channel Flows

●​ Internal flow: Flow where the fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces (e.g., flow in
a pipe or duct).
●​ External flow: Flow where the fluid flows over a surface immersed in an unbounded fluid
(e.g., flow over a wing or a flat plate).
●​ Open-channel flow: A special type of internal flow where the liquid surface is exposed
to the atmosphere (e.g., flow in a river, canal, or partially filled pipe).

1-4C: Mach Number and Flow State

●​ The Mach number (M) is defined as the ratio of the flow speed (V) to the local speed
of sound (c): M = \frac{V}{c}
●​ A Mach number of 2 indicates supersonic flow.

1-5C: Constant Speed vs. Constant Mach Number

Not necessarily. If the airplane is flying at a constant speed relative to the ground, its Mach
number may not be constant.
The Mach number depends on the speed of sound (c), which is a function of the temperature
of the air. If the airplane's altitude or the ambient air temperature changes, the speed of sound
will change, and thus the Mach number will change even if the airplane's speed remains
constant.

1-6C: Incompressible Approximation at M=0.12

Yes, the flow of air at a Mach number of 0.12 should be approximated as incompressible.
As a rule of thumb, for flows where the Mach number is less than about 0.3 (M < 0.3), the
density changes due to velocity variations are negligible (less than about 5%), and the flow is
typically modeled as incompressible.

1-7C: No-Slip Condition

●​ The no-slip condition states that a fluid in direct contact with a solid surface will stick to
the surface and have zero relative velocity to that surface. In other words, the velocity
of the fluid at the wall is equal to the velocity of the wall.
●​ It is caused by the viscosity of the fluid. Fluid particles are attracted to the solid surface,
and this intermolecular attraction prevents the fluid from slipping along the surface.

1-8C: Forced Flow vs. Natural Flow

●​ Forced flow: The fluid motion is induced by an external mechanism, such as a pump,
fan, or the wind in the case of air.
●​ Natural (or free) flow: The fluid motion is caused by natural means, such as the
buoyancy effect (density differences) resulting from temperature variations (e.g., the
rising of warmer, less dense air).
●​ Flow caused by winds is an example of forced flow, as the fluid motion is externally
induced by atmospheric pressure gradients.

1-9C: Boundary Layer

●​ A boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid adjacent to a solid surface where the effects
of viscosity are significant, and the fluid velocity changes from zero at the wall (due to the
no-slip condition) to the free-stream velocity away from the wall.
●​ The viscosity of the fluid and the resulting no-slip condition cause the boundary layer
to develop.

1-10C: Classical vs. Statistical Approaches

●​ The classical (or macroscopic) approach (like in thermodynamics and fluid mechanics)
deals with the overall, averaged behavior of matter. It focuses on the macroscopic
properties (like pressure, temperature, density) without considering the behavior of
individual molecules.
●​ The statistical (or microscopic) approach deals with the behavior of individual
particles (molecules/atoms) and uses statistical methods to predict the average
behavior of the system.

1-11C: Steady-Flow Process

A steady-flow process is a process during which the properties of the fluid at a control
volume do not change with time. Although the properties can change from one point to
another within the control volume, at any fixed point, they remain constant over time.

1-12C: Stress, Normal Stress, Shear Stress, and Pressure

●​ Stress (\sigma): Force per unit area. It is the measure of internal forces acting within a
deformable body.
●​ Normal stress (\sigma_n): The stress component that acts perpendicular to the area
element.
●​ Shear stress (\tau): The stress component that acts tangentially (parallel) to the area
element.
●​ Pressure (P): A special case of normal stress that is exerted by a fluid at rest on a
surface. In fluid mechanics, it's typically the compression normal stress.

1-13C: System Type for Nozzle Analysis

When analyzing the acceleration of gases as they flow through a nozzle, you would choose a
control volume as your system. This is a control volume system (also called an open
system).
●​ Reason: A control volume is a fixed region in space chosen for study, and mass (the gas)
crosses the boundary (the control surface) of the system.

1-14C: Closed System vs. Control Volume

●​ A closed system (or control mass) is when no mass crosses the system boundary, but
energy (heat and work) may cross the boundary.
●​ A control volume (or open system) is when both mass and energy are allowed to
cross the system boundary.

1-15C: Reciprocating Air Compressor System

You would use a control volume system to understand how a reciprocating air compressor
works.
●​ Reason: Mass (air) enters and leaves the piston-cylinder device as it cycles, meaning
mass crosses the boundary of the region being studied.

1-16C: System, Surroundings, and Boundary

●​ System: A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
●​ Surroundings: The mass or region outside the system.
●​ Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings. The boundary can be fixed or movable.