© 2015 JETIR September 2015, Volume 2, Issue 9 [Link].

org (ISSN-2349-5162)

STEEPNESS INDEX DERIVED AREAS OF

DIFFERENTIAL ROCK UPLIFT RATES IN
THE LANJA REGION FROM SOUTHERN
KONKAN COASTAL BELT, MAHARASHTRA,
INDIA.

V.M. DIKSHIT,
D.B.F. Dayanand College of Arts and Science, Solapur. 413002

ABSTRACT

The mega-feature of the Western Ghat located at passive continental margin of West Coast of India is considered to be
neotectonic resurgence. Many geoscientists have postulated or derived sustained uplift along escarpment as well as in
the Konkan lowland. The stream gradient is very sensitive to rock uplift rate. The Digital Elevation Model of the
landscape from southern Konkan Coastal Belt helped us to derive quantitative estimates of spatial variation in uplift
rate directly from digital topographic data. Longitudinal profiles of two major rivers (Kajali and Machkundi) and their
tributaries, have been investigated to understand the spatially variable uplift rates on the concavity ( ) of the bedrock
rivers. The longitudinal profile of graded stream is typically concave-up. Areas that are undergoing faster surface uplift
are identified by high normalized steepness index (Ksn) values. The study area lies under seismic zone IV. The area
around Lanja had experienced few numbers of seismic events of moderate magnitude.

Keywords: Konkan Coastal Belt, longitudinal profile, profile concavity, steepness index, differential uplift

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1. INTRODUCTION:
Relief is the result of interaction between climate, lithology, rock structures and tectonically induced vertical
crustal movements. Landforms in active tectonic regimes are evolved as a response to interaction between tectonic
uplift and surface processes. The evolution of topography reflects the balance between the tectonic uplift of rocks
and their destruction by climate and slope-driven erosion and sediment transport processes (Davis, 1899; Hack,
1960). Only fluvial network consistently maintains its connection to tectonic forcing, and therefore contains
potentially useful information about variation in rock uplift rates across the landscape (Wobus, et al., 2006).
Mathematical modeling and field studies indicated that spatial patterns in erosion, from the local scale of tributaries
to a large river valley, may influence the location of deformation in active mountain belts, (Anders et al., 2002;
Stolar, et al., 2006). The bedrock streams are sensitive to tectonically imposed boundary conditions (Snyder et al.,
2000) and allow estimating tectonic uplift rates where direct structural and geodetic data is not available.
In this context, longitudinal profiles in the pattern of drainage were used to infer zones of enhanced tectonic
activity in area of coastal strip from southern Deccan Volcanic Province along West Coast of India (Fig.1).
Quantitative measurements and geomorphic indices have been previously tested as a valuable tool in various
tectonically active regimes, such as the Garhwal Himalaya and the Western Ghat regions (Tyagi, et al., 2009,
Campanile, et al., 2008; Harbor and Gunnell, 2007). Kale and Shejwalkar (2008) have applied Geomorphic Indices
of active Tectonics (GAT) to drainages from both sides of Western Ghat to identify the areas of active tectonics.
They concluded with the results indicate that the Western Deccan CFB belongs to the class of relatively low tectonic
activity. This paper comprises analysis and interpretation of longitudinal profile – normalized steepness and
concavity of streams (Ksn and) that have been used successfully in studies of active tectonics.
West coast of India is sutured by West Coast Fault (WCF) and this continental margin is definitive example of
rifted passive shoulder type (Matmon, et al., 2002) with well-defined western (seaward) facing escarpment, the
Western Ghat (Fig.1.). The formation of the present western Indian margin was initiated by the late Cretaceous
separation from Madagascar (ca 88 Ma) and, finally, by a ridge-jump which detached India from the Seychelles
Bank at the time of its flight over Reunion Hotspot, which also causes voluminous outpouring the Deccan
Continental Flood Basalt (CFB) (ca 65 Ma), (Hooper, 1990). The Apatite Fission Track (AFT) derived ages of
Deccan CFB are between 54 and 72Ma (Gunnell, et al., 2003). Formation of Western Ghat separates the CFB region
into three parts from east to west are Deccan Upland, Western Ghats and coastal low land, the Konkan respectively.
The Western Ghat has become drainage divide for westerly and easterly flowing major rivers. A narrow strip of
coastal belt, the Konkan Coastal Belt (KCB) (average width about 50km) is characterized by westerly flowing
rivers. According to Valdiya (2011) Western Ghat is mega-geomorphic feature it is not just due to isostatic uplift
but can be attributed to tectonic resurgence. The variations in the dips of lava flow were attributed by Nielson and
Brooks (1981) to extensional fault structure with number of rotated blocks bounded by faults / fracture zones
represented by western margin of India. According to Valdiya (2011) there must be presence of blind faults along
west coast of India, which are in the process of formation and have yet not reached the surface, and thus have no
surface expression.
The KCB is characterized by westerly flowing rivers with dendritic and trellis to anastomosing drainage pattern
suggesting structural control (Fig.2.). The western coast is rimmed by plateaux capped by laterite (Fig.1). The
elevation of the coastal laterite (up to 200 m) together with associated development of an entrenched drainage
indicates that widespread uplift has affected the margin during Late Tertiary times. Bendick and Bilham (1999)
documented uplift rate at c 0.8mm/yr-1 at 13028’N latitude inferred from 14C dating of shelly deposits. Moreover,
they recorded uplift rate at over 3mm/yr-1 in recent decades (1950 – 1980) with the help of tide gauge record and
leveling data. They also recorded a series of Quaternary synclinal structures trending ENE on the West Indian coast
between about 80N and 200N. No relative displacement can be measured in the study area due to lack of marker
horizon.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:
Stable streams are in dynamic equilibrium and called “graded”. A graded stream can have depositional and
erosional events but overall the sediment transported and supplied to the stream is balanced over long periods.
Disturbance of the equilibrium leads to unstable streams that are “degrading” (eroding) or “aggrading” (depositing).
A stream can typically exhibit all three equilibrium states in various reaches along its channel.
When the sediment supply exceeds the transport capacity of a river, its sediment load is said to be transport-
limited and aggradation of the channel bed results. Bedrock channels are commonly said to be detachment-limited
as the capacity of the river to carry sediment exceeds the supply of material to the channel (Turowski, et al., 2008)
The longitudinal profiles of bedrock (or mixed bedrock-alluvial) channels are more sensitive indicators of uplift
rate than other morphological properties.
2.1 Stream Long Profile:
Detachment-limited incision into bedrock is modeled as a power law function of contributing area and channel
gradient (Howard and Kerby, 1983; Whipple and Tucker, 1999). An equation for river profile evolution can be
written as:

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𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑈(𝑥, 𝑡) − 𝐾𝐴𝑚 𝑆 𝑛 (1)
Where, dz/dt is the time rate of change of channel elevation, U is rock uplift rate relative to a fixed base level,
A is upstream drainage area, S is local channel gradient, K is a dimensional coefficient of erosion, and m and n are
positive constants related to basin lithology, hydraulic geometry, and erosion process (Howard, 1994; Whipple and
Tucker, 1999; Whipple et al., 2000). Under steady-state conditions (dz/dt = 0), with uniform U and K and constant
m and n, equation (1) can be modified to yield an expression for equilibrium channel gradient:
1⁄ 𝑚
𝑈 𝑛
𝑆 = ( ) 𝐴−( 𝑛 ) , (2)
𝐾
Equation (2) portends a power-law relationship between channel gradient and drainage area often observed in
natural landscapes, of the form S = KsnA- (Tarboton et al., 1991; Sklar and Dietrich, 1998), where the coefficient
(U/K)1/n sets the channel steepness, ksn and the ratio m/n is the intrinsic channel concavity, which equals the actual
concavity  only under conditions of uniform K, U, m, and n.
Therefore, the equation (2) can be written as:
𝑆 = 𝐾𝑠 𝐴−𝜃 (3)
Where, ksn are the steepness index and  the concavity index. Steepness index is known to be a function of rock
uplift rate, lithology and climate. The concavity index is typically in the range 0.2–0.6, (Hack, 1957; Flint, 1974;
Snyder et al., 2000; Kirby and Whipple, 2001) and is apparently insensitive to differences in uplift rate, lithology
and climate.
The coefficient Ksn is similar in principle to the stream-gradient index developed by Hack, (1973). In any
analysis of stream longitudinal profiles, the relationships implied by equations (1) and (3):
θ = m/n, (4)
and
Ksn = (U/K)1/n, (5)
hold true if and only if (1) the river profile is in steady state with respect to current climatic and uplift conditions;
and (2) both uplift rate (U) and coefficient of erosion (K) are uniform through the channel reach. Where these
conditions are met, the parameters (U/K)1/n and m/n can be estimated directly through regressions of channel-
gradient and drainage-area data.
Segments of individual profile are characterized by different values of Ksn and  or both. This variation in values
is helpful to extract tectonic information from landscape.
3. PHYSIOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC SETTING:
The shaded relief map nicely dictates the physiographic setting of the study area (Fig. 1). The study area can be
divided in to three geomorphic domains, from east to west are 1) Western Ghat escarpment and Foot Hills (FH), 2)
the middle low laying land (LL) and 3) tilted tableland (TT) mainly capped by laterites. Laterites found on upland
are high-level laterites while those occurring in the study area are low-level laterites. Both high and low-level
laterites are considered to be remnants of palaeo-surfaces (Widdowson and Gunnel, 1999).
Westerly flowing major rivers, Kajali River at north and Machkundi River at south, traverse these three
domains. Though laterites encountered near the mouth of these rivers, the rivers deeply incise laterites and
underlying basaltic substrate. It is better to describe these channels of both the rivers as “mixed bedrock-alluvium
channels”. Bedrock channels of streams are characterized by deep and sometimes interconnected potholes,
cascades, waterfalls, steep valley walls, deep incision etc.
The FH domain is characterized by high relief, trellis drainage pattern and deformed geomorphic surfaces
associated with a dissected landscape. This domain has high stream gradients with low sinuosity which indicate
active tectonic regime. The LL domain is characterized by low relative relief, meandering rivers with relatively low
surface slope and river gradient, but high river sinuosity. Sudden increase in sinuosity of rivers in LL domain also
indicates the higher vertical movement of FH domain than LL domain. Increase in sediment flux causes patchy
occurrences of thin veneer of sediments in the bed. The TT domain has westerly / seaward tilted plateaux (2 0 to 60)
with laterite capping. Sudden increase in gradient, deep incised streams and moderate relief are the characteristic
of TT domain. All these features indicate that the FH, LL and TT geomorphic zones are tectonically active.
4. METHODS:
DEM, Survey of India (SOI) topographic sheets of scale 1:50,000 and field data has been used for investigations
for this study. Digital topographic data is suitable for long profile analysis. SRTM data of 30m resolution was used.
The DEM data of resolution 30m was used in this study. The data was further resampled at equal intervals height
(∆z) to reduce bias in regression analysis and for smoothing DEM profiles. The synthetic drainage network was
extracted using the D8 algorithm with threshold drainage area set at 1km2.
The digital data thus obtained was utilized to extract requisite stream profiles and their parameters. A group of
built-in-functions in ArcGIS were used for flow direction and flow accumulation raster. A suit of MATLAB scripts,
“profiler” was used to extract and analyze stream longitudinal profiles, knick points and logS-logA plots. Its
interface with ArcGIS allows us to delineate streams and knick points on DEM.

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5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Most of the tributaries join the major rivers at right angle forming trellis drainage pattern (Fig.2). The headwater
of both the rivers flow towards west, but trunk channels at lower reaches of both the rivers change direction abruptly
to a NNW trend near their mouth indicating structural control on these rivers.
Streams in TT domain: Though streams are at their lower reaches, deep incision occurs in this domain due to
channel steepening (Fig.1). In this domain streams obey detachment-limited characters. The channels are occupied
mainly by boulders, cobbles and silt. The boulders are derived from frequent occurrence of landslides in this domain.
Streams in LL domain: This middle domain exhibits varieties of stream channel patterns (Fig.1). Streams
exhibit patches of thin veneer of alluvial deposits and can be classified as mixed bedrock-alluvial channel. Increase
in sinuosity, presence of ponding and trellis drainage pattern of tributaries is characteristic of major rivers in this
domain mainly due to decrease in gradient (Fig.2). Dhokachi tributary increases its sinuosity because of uplift zone
at its lower reaches. Frequent land sliding and subsidence occur along the channel of Dhokachi stream. A channel
of Dhokachi is characterized by presence of boulders and cobbles derived from landslide, series of interconnected
potholes, and four knick points. River piracy is indicator of active tectonics. The drainages of tributary Indavati are
captured by Panhale stream. The piracy occurred because the capturing stream (Panhale) is a shorter distance
upstream from the Machkundi river base level, at the point of capture, than the captured (Indavati) stream (Fig.2).
The knick zone of Panhale stream must have been migrated to its upstream to accommodate larger river. Headwater
erosion of the shorter and steeper Indavati stream was fostered by the knick points.
Streams in FH domain: The streams in this domain are characterized by narrow valley width and good hydraulic
scaling indicating active uplift zone. Valley sides are steep and narrow. Few numbers of tributaries meet major
rivers at right angles. Kajali exhibit broader basin width at its upper reaches than the basin width shown by
Machkundi at its head.
5.1 Long-Profile:
Equation (3) has been used to generate long-profiles using “Profiler” suit in MATLAB with ArcGIS interface.
Long-profiles of two major rivers as well as their 14 tributaries and their corresponding concavity and steepness
were used to characterize tectonics, uplift pattern and knick zones. A reference concavity ref = 0.45 is considered
for interpretation of steepness values, because Ksn and  are determined by regression analysis. Long-profile of
channels are segmented and regressed to know the gradual change in the steepness indices of a channel. Distribution
of normalized steepness indices for all tributaries in the catchment can be extremely useful tool for delineating
tectonic boundaries (Kirby et al., 2003; Wobus et al., 2003).
Table 1: Steepness and concavity indices of Kajali and Machkundi rivers and their tributaries.
Ksn;  Ksn; 
(range) (range)
Kajali 52.1 0.72±0.043 Machkundi 40.2 0.59±0.22
River (44.4-59.7) River (33.5-46.9)
Agav 9.1 0.57±0.18 Bhandar 19 0.3±0.21
(5.18-13) (16.8-21.2)
Dugva 22.4 0.064±0.11 Panhale 10.4 0.44±0.14
(17.4-27.3) (8.48-12.4)
Murshi 35.9 0.63±0.054 Hardkhale 40.4 0.85±0.24
(31-40.9) (32.2-48.5)
Palu 39.2 0.63±0.061 Indavati 12.2 0.023±0.44
(34-44.4) (5.28-19.2)
Panval 15.1 0.34±0.14 Mandav 9.38 0.42±0.086
(12.8-17.4) (8.45-10.3)
Salpe 27.5 0.64±0.059 Vilavade 8.25 0.45±0.056
(22.9-32.1) (7.25-9.24)
Thorli 16.3 0.3±0.096 Dhokachi 10.5 0.039±0.3
(14.9-17.7) (4.79-16.2)

The long-profiles of the Kajali river is found to have relatively smooth and concave curves for much of its
length suggesting a condition in which the rivers have equilibrated with local rock uplift. Kajali River has attained
their steady state. (Fig. 3 and 4) Machkundi River shows convexities at segments along their long profiles.
Machkundi River is likely to be undergoing transient response to tectonics. The convexities at upper and lower
reaches indicate higher uplift rate.
Pronounced change in increase in the steepness and concavity indices in the FH domain has been observed. The
long-profile of streams in this zone dictates increase in convexity (Fig 3 and 4).
The pattern of uplift is best developed in the TT domain. Convexities in long profiles of tributaries of Kajali
river such as Panval, Agav, Dugva and Thorli and tributaries of Machkundi river such as Dhokachi, Indavati,

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Southern stream of Panhale, Mandavkar and Bhandar indicate these streams are in transient state because of high
uplift rate. All of these tributaries are flowing in TT domain. All rivers and their tributaries show pronounced
increase in steepness and concavity indices in TT domain (Table1). The presence of knick points dictate transient
long profiles with short over steepened reach separating old and new equilibrium states of these streams (Fig. 3 and
4)
In the LL domain the streams exhibit increase in their sinuosity. The gradient and grade of incision of streams
also decrease. The increase in rate of uplift at lower reaches of streams across this domain is responded by streams
by increasing their sinuosity.
Knick points in multiple rivers and streams are found at different points in the basins but nearly constant
elevation (Fig. 2). Domains TT and FH can be ascribed as knick zones as only few number of knick points occur in
the domain LL.
Gradient-area (logS-logA) data analysis of channel profiles can be a powerful quantitative tool even without a
complete understanding of fluvial incision process (Whipple, 2004). The slope-area data presented along with long
profile in figure 3 and 4 also support the transient response of rivers and their tributaries to uplift rate by changes
in their regression (dashed lines in each plot).
Panval, Thorli, Bhandar, Indavati and Dhokachi streams, loaded with knick points, exhibit extremely low
concavity ( = <0.4) is due to increase in their incision rate, indicative of their transient state (Table 1.). Moderate
concavity ( = 0.4 – 0.7) is shown by Agav, Murshi, Palu, Salpe, Panhale, Mandav and Vilavade streams is
suggestive of uniform rock uplift. Kajali River and Hardkhale stream exhibit high concavity ( = 0.7 – 1.0) and are
associated with downstream decrease in uplift rate.
The increase in gradient, steepness and convexity in the long-profile occurs above the topographic contour 120
in TT domain while the same trend occurs in FH domain above the topographic contour 220.
6. CONCLUSION:
Results of morphotectonic analysis of part of KCB region dictate a geomorphology and landscape dominated
by active tectonics. The tectonic activity is superimposed on the drainages in the study region. The fluvial response
to uplift is based on the fact that the area has experiencing uniform lithology and climatic conditions.
Pattern and intensity of tectonic activity in the KCB regime has been exploited with the help of morphotectonic
indices. The longitudinal profile of the streams seems to be very useful in understanding the relationship of uplift
rate and its consequences on drainages.
 Increase in steepness and concavity in western (TT) and eastern (FH) domain indicate they are undergoing
higher uplift rate than the middle domain (LL).
 The wave of tectonic resurgence transmitted in the area and is reflected by the drainage pattern and their
adaptation with it by increase in incision. The major rivers Kajali and Machkundi attained state of equilibrium
with the higher uplift rate. The tributaries of these rivers are in transient state as a response to their conflict with
tectonic imbalance. Geomorphic processes driving erosion by tributaries are lagging behind the tectonic
processes that have driven the rock uplift. This result emphasize the importance of lag times a landscape may
digest to transform the tectonic conditions to another.
Signals transmitted by tectonic disturbances are reflected in the drainages patterns as well as physiography of the study
area. Higher uplift rate in domains TT and FH is also reflected in physiographic setting of the study area. Deep incision
by rivers, presence of narrow and deep valleys and increased gradient indicate high uplift zone. The middle domain LL
experiencing low uplift rate than the adjacent domains is dictated by increase in sinuosity and sediment flux, river piracy
and absence of relief features. The visual interpretation of shaded relief map derived from DEM also supports the spatial
variation in uplift zone and rate.
There are no previously inferred faults or fault zones in the study area. We interpret the presence of graben structure
formed due to extensional tectonic activity as in rifted CFB margins of other parts of the world. Morphotectonic studies
coupled with other structural signatures would help to build a conclusion leading to presence of extensional tectonics.

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Fig. 1: Location and geologic map of the study area. The domains are marked by TT (Tilted Tableland), LL (Low laying
Land) and FH (Foot Hills).

Fig.2: Drainage map of the study area showing Ksn values along segments of stream. Dots on the stream show knick
points. Inset shows Indavati stream captured by Panhale stream.

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© 2015 JETIR September 2015, Volume 2, Issue 9 [Link] (ISSN-2349-5162)

Fig.3: Long profile and slope-area data from 30m resolution digital elevation data model (DEM) of Kajali River and its
tributaries. The plus marks along the profile indicate the locations of user-specified knickpoint positions. Arrows above
and below long profiles show regression limits for slope-area fits. In all plots dashed lines are fits to data with ref=0.45.
Squares are slope-area data using log-bin averaging method; crosses are data using 200m smoothing window to calculate
channel slopes. Open circles show the locations of the knickpoints as plotted on the long profile.

JETIR1701038 Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research (JETIR) [Link] 229
© 2015 JETIR September 2015, Volume 2, Issue 9 [Link] (ISSN-2349-5162)

Fig.4: Long profile and slope-area data from 30m resolution digital elevation data model (DEM) of Machkundi River
and its tributaries. The plus marks along the profile indicate the locations of user-specified knickpoint positions. Arrows
above and below long profiles show regression limits for slope-area fits. In all plots dashed lines are fits to data with
ref=0.45. Squares are slope-area data using log-bin averaging method; crosses are data using 200m smoothing window
to calculate channel slopes. Open circles show the locations of the knickpoints as plotted on the long profile.

JETIR1701038 Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research (JETIR) [Link] 230