NCERT/SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS

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Electric charge and field

Electric Charge & its properties

Charge of a material body or particle is the property (acquired or natural) due to which it produces and experience
electrical and magnetic effects. Some of naturally charged particles are electron, proton, a - particle etc.

Types of Charge:
(i) Positive Charge: It is the deficiency of electrons compared to protons.
(ii) Negative Charge: It is the excess of electrons compared to protons.

Units of Charge:
Charge is measured in coulomb in S.I. units. Charge is a derived physical quantity. Dimensional formula
of charge = [M0L0T1I1].

Properties of Charge
1) Charge is a scalar quantity: It adds algebraically and represents excess, or deficiency of electrons.
2) Charge is transferable: Charging a body implies transfer of charge (electrons) from one body to another.
Positively charged body means loss of electrons, i.e., deficiency of electrons. Negatively charged body means
excess of electrons. This also shows that mass of a negatively charged body > mass of a positively charged
identical body.
3) Charge is conserved: In an isolated system, total charge (sum of positive and negative) remains constant
whatever change takes place in that system.
4) Charge is quantized: Charge on any body always exists in integral multiples of a fundamental unit of electric
charge. This unit is equal to the magnitude of charge on electron (1e = 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb). So charge on
anybody Q =± ne , where n is an integer and e is the charge of the electron.

Illustration 1: Three metallic spheres say X, Y and Z have charges 10C, –10C, 10C respectively. X, Y, Z are brought in
contact such that charge on each of X and Y becomes 3C what is charge on Z.
(a) 1 C (b) 2 C (c) 3 C (d) 4 C
Solution: Net charge initially on X, Y and Z = (+10 –10 +10) = 10C
= Final net charge on X, Y and Z = qX + qY +qZ
= 3 + 3 + qz = 10C . Therefore, qz = 4C .

Method of Charging a Conductor & Insulator

Conductor: Materials which have large number of free electrons, for example metals.
Insulator or Dielectric or Nonconductor : Materials which do not have free electrons, for example plastic.

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Charging of a Body
A body can be charged by means of (a) friction, (b) conduction, (c) induction, etc.
(a) Charging by Friction: When a neutral body is rubbed
with other neutral then some electrons are transferred from
one body to other. The body which gains electrons becomes
negatively charged and other becomes positively charged.
Transfer of electrons takes places from lower work function
body to higher work function body.

Objects acquiring two kinds of charges on rubbing

POSITIVE CHARGE NEGATIVE CHARGE
Glass rod Silk cloth
Fur or woolen cloth Ebonite, Amber, Rubber rod
Woolen coat Plastic seat
Woolen carpet Rubber shoes
Nylon or Acetate Cloth
Dry hair Comb

(b) Charging by Conduction (flow): When a charged conductor is connected with a neutral conductor then charge
flows from one body to other body. In case of two charged conductors charge flows from higher potential energy to
lower potential energy. The charge stops flowing when the electric potential of the two bodies become same.

(b) Charging by Induction: If a charged body is brought near a metallic neutral body, the charged body will attract
opposite charge and repel similar charge present in the neutral body. As a result of this one side of the neutral body
becomes negative while the other positive, this process is called 'electrostatic induction'

Charged body brought uncharged body connected uncharged body Charging body is removed
near a uncharged to earth disconnected to earth
conductor

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Note:
(i) Inducing body neither gains nor loses charge
(ii) The nature of induced charge is always opposite to that of inducing charge
(iii) Induction takes place only in bodies and not in particles.

Gold Leaf Electroscope

Electric charges and their properties can be studied easily by building a
simple equipment known as an electroscope. Take a glass bottle with a wide Metal Foil
mouth. Remember that glass is an insulator. Take a piece of cork that will fit
into the mouth of the bottle. Make a tiny whole in the cork. Put the copper Cork
wire through the whole. On one end of the copper wire, attach the small
metallic plate. At the other end of the copper wire make a small loop or
hook. Cut a thin strip of aluminum foil. Place the strip on the hook of the Copper wire
copper wire. Now put the cork in place and close the mouth of the bottle
tightly. Your electroscope is ready Aluminium
Foil
An electroscope will be able to detect the presence of static charges, but is
unable to give you any information about the sign (negative or positive) of
the charges. Only a reasonable guess can tell you whether the charge on
the electroscope is positive or negative.
Take a plastic comb. Rub it on a dry surface like a tissue paper or hair. Now
make the comb to touch the electroscope plate. You will observe that the Charged
leaves of the aluminum foil, inside the electroscope, separate.
This is because the charges developed on comb due to friction, travel down Metal disc
through the conducting wire and reach the two leaves of the aluminum foil.
The two leaves acquire similar charges and repel each other. This
phenomenon occurs for a short time only. (The charges developed on the Copper wire
aluminum leaves dissipate or discharge into the air quickly) We can
conclude that the aluminium foils repel each other because they have Aluminium
acquired same charges. Extending this understanding to unlike charges, we Foil
can say that unlike charges attract each other.
Let us again go back to the electroscope. Now, instead of causing the
charged comb to contact the electroscope, hold it close to the plate. The +++++++++
aluminum leaves will again part for a short while. Over many years it is now --------
understood why this happens: the charges on the comb polarize the charges
in the plate. So the top part of the electroscope plate acquires a charge
opposite to the charge on the comb. The comb is negatively charged, so the
plate gets positive charge. The lower part of the electroscope, that is the
aluminum leaves, get negatively charged, the charge same as that of the
comb
A question might arise in your mind as to how do we know which material Electrons
is positively charged and which material is negatively charged, when the + +
attracted
two are rubbed together. Over many experimental observations, we now + +
upwards
know that, for example, when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod is
positively charged and when an ebonite (a type of plastic) rod is rubbed
with wool, the rod gets negatively charged.

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HOW TO FIND THE NATURE OF CHARGE ON A GIVEN BODY?

Take a G.L.E. and charge it positively or negatively by touching its disc [with a positively charged glass rod or negatively
charged ebonite rod. ‘Imagine, you have a negatively charged G.L.E. Now touch the given charged body to the disc of
negatively charged G.L.E. If the leaves of G.L.E. diverge further, then the body is negatively charged. It is because,
similar charges repel each other. If the leaves of G.L.E. collapse, then the body is positively charged. It is because some
charges from negatively charged G.L.E. will flow to the positively charged body.

Coulomb’s Law
The electrostatic force of interaction between two point-electric charges is directly proportional to the product of the
charges, inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them and acts along the straight line joining the
two charges.
Strictly speaking, Coulomb’s law applies to stationary point charges.
Consider two point-charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r. Let F be the electrostatic force between these two
charges. According to Coulomb’s law,
1
i) F µ q1 q2 ii) F µ
r2
q1q2 q1q2
Combining, Fµ or F =k
r2 r2

q1 q2
r

Where k is a positive constant of proportionality called electrostatic force constant or Coulomb constant. Its value
depends upon the system of units and also on the medium between the two charges.
1 1
k= =
In SI, 4 pe 4 pe 0K (! e = e0K)
1 q1q2
F=
4 pe 0K r2
e is absolute electrical permittivity of the dielectric medium between the charges, e0 is the permittivity of free space
i.e., vacuum.

Important points regarding Coulomb’s law:

1) It is valid only for point charges
1
2) The constant of proportionality K in SI units in vacuum is expressed as k = and in any other medium as
4 pe 0
1
k= . Here e and e0 are called the permittivity of medium and permittivity of free space respectively. The
4 pe
e
ratio is denoted by K (or) er is called the relative permittivity of the medium and is a dimensionless quantity.
e0
3) The value of e is constant for a medium and can vary from 1 to ∞. For vacuum, by definition its value is 1. For
air it is nearly 1 and for calculations it may be taken as 1.
4) The permittivity of free space, e0, as determined by experiment is 8.85 × 10-12C2N-1m-2 . The approximate value
may be taken as 9 × 10-12C2N-1m-2.

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1 1
5) The value of is 8.9875 x 109 Nm2C-2. For the sake of mathematical convenience, the value of is
4 pe0 4 pe0
taken as 9 x 109 Nm2C-2.
6) The force acting on one point-charge due to the other point-charge is always along the line joining these two
charges. It is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on two charges, irrespective of the medium, in
which they lie.
7) The force is conservative in nature i.e., work done by electrostatic force in moving a point charge along a close
loop of any shape is zero.
8) In vector form formula can be given as below:
! 1 q1q2 ! 1 q1q2
F= !3 r= ! rˆ
4 pe0 r 4 pe0 r 2
!
r is position vector of the test charge (on which force is to be calculated, which is a unit positive charge) with
respect to the source charge (due to which force is to be calculated).

Principle of superposition − Force on any charge due to a number of other charges is ®

the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken one at F13
a time. The individual forces are unaffected due to the presence of other charges. ® ®
F1n F12
Consider that n point charges q1, q2, q3, … qn are distributed in space in a discrete
manner. The charges are interacting with each other
® ® ®
q1
Let the charges q2, q3, … qn exert forces F12 ,F13 ,..........F1n on charge q1. Then, according
to principle of superposition, the total force on charge q1 is given by, r12 rn1
r13
r"
n1
® ® ® ®
F1 = F12 + F13 + ..........F1n _____________
(i) qi q0
r!13
r̂21 q3
If the distance between the charges q1 and q2 is denoted as r12; and is unit vector
from charge q2 to q1, then
® 1 q1q2 !
F12 = . r21
4 pe 0 r122
Similarly, the force on charge q1 due to other charges is given by,
® 1 q1q3 !
F13 = . r 31
4 pe 0 r132
® 1 q1qn !
F1n = . rn1
4 pe 0 r1n2
Substituting these in equation (i),
® 1 æ q1q2 ! qq qq ö
\F1 = . ç 2 r 21 + 12 3 r! 31 + ..... + 12 n r! n1 ÷
4pe0 è r12 r13 r1n ø

Condition for Equilibrium:

1. If the net force acting on any one particular charge of the given system of charges is equal to zero. Then, that charge
is said to be in equilibrium. (the type of equilibrium can be identified depending on its behaviour, when it is disturbed
from equilibrium position.)

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2. If the net force acting on all charged particles is equal to zero, then the system said to be in equilibrium.

Questions
1. Find the value of x and q for which the system of three charges will be in equilibrium

2. Find the value of Q for which the system will be in equilibrium

3. Find the value of Q for which the net force acting on q is equal to zero.

4. If the distance between two equal point charges is tripled and their individual charges are also tripled, what would
happen to the force between them?
ANS: No change in the force
5. The force of repulsion between two-point charges is F, when these are at a distance of 2 m. Now the point charges
are replaced by spheres of radii 10 cm having the charge same as that of point charges. The distance between their
centres is 2 m, then compare the force of repulsion in two cases.
ANS:(Due to induction between the two charged bodies in case-2, the effective distance between the charges will
increase and therefore force of repulsion will decrease)

Electric Field
In order to explain Non-contact force between charges it is assumed that a charge or charge distribution produces a
field in space surrounding it. So the region surrounding a charge (or charge distribution) in which its electrical effects
are perceptible is called the electric field of the given charge
Electric intensity, Electric potential and lines of force are different ways of describing the electric field.
Electric Field is the space around a charge, in which any other charge experiences an electrostatic force

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Electric Field Intensity

Electric field intensity at a point due to a source charge is defined as the force experienced per unit positive test charge
placed at that point without disturbing the source charge
The electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the force per unit positive charge acting on a vanishingly small
positive test charge placed at that point.
® ®
® F ® F
E = limit E = limit
q0 ® 0 q Dq® 0 Dq
0 or

ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

We have to find electric field at point P due to point charge +q placed at the ®

® ® Z F
origin such that OP = r
q0
To find the same, place a vanishingly small positive test charge q0 at point P.
P(x, y, z)
According to Coulomb’s law, force on the test charge q0 due to charge q is ®
r
® 1 qq0 !
F= . r r!
4 pe 0 r2 +q
® Y
O
If E is the electric field at point P, then
®
® F æ 1 1 qq0 ! ö X
E = Lt = Lt ç . r÷
è 0 4 pe0 r ø
q0 ® 0 q q0 ® 0 q 2
0

® 1 q! 1 q®
E= . 2r= r
4 pe0 r 4 pe0 r 3 ______________
(i)
The magnitude of the electric field at point P is given by, ®
En
1 q ®
E= . Ei
4 pe 0 r 2 ®
® Fi
r1 Fn
®
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES r2 F2 ®
q2 E2
®
If E is the electric field at point P due to the system of charges, then by q0
r1 ®
principal of superposition of electric fields, F1
rn ®
® ® ® ® ® n ®
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ....... + En = åEi E1
i =1 qi qn
Using equation (i), we obtain
® n
1 qi !
E =å . ri
i =1 4 pe 0 ri2
® 1 n qi !
E= å ri
4 pe 0 i=1 ri2

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PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ELECTRIC FIELD

(i) The term ‘field’ in physics generally refers to a quantity that is defined at every point in space and may vary
from point to point. The concept of field was first introduced by Faraday. It is now among the central concepts in
physics.
(ii) Electric field is a vector field which is defined at every point space and may vary from point to point. For
electrostatics, the concept of electric field is not really necessary but is convenient. Electric field is a characteristic of
the system of charge and is independent of the test charge that we place at a point to determine the field.
(iii)the problem of determining the interaction between the charges is reduced to two separate problems:
(a) To determine the electric field, established by the first charge, at every point in space.
(b) To calculate the force that the field exists on the second charge.
(iv) The true physical significance of the concept of electric field emerges only when we deal with time-dependent
electromagnetic phenomena. Consider the force between two distant charges q1 and q2 in accelerated motion. The
greatest speed with which a signal or information can go from one point to another is c, the speed of light. So, the
effect of any motion of q1 and q2 cannot be the cause (motion of q1). It is precisely here that the concept of electric
field accelerated motion of q1 produced electromagnetic waves which propagate with the speed of light, reach q2 and
cause a force on q2. The concept of field accounts for the time delay.
Illustration 2: Two point charges q1 and q2, of magnitude +10–8 C and –10–8 C, respectively, are placed 0.1 m apart.
Calculate the electric fields at points A, B and C shown in figure
Solution: The electric field vector E1A at A due to the positive charge
q1 points towards the right and has a magnitude

E1A =
(9 ´ 10 Nm C ) ´ (10 C ) = 3.6 ´ 10
9 2 -2 -8
4
N C -1
( 0.05 m) 2

The electric field vector E2A at A due to the negative charge

q2 points towards the right and has the same magnitude.
Hence the magnitude of the total electric field EA at A is
EA = E1A + E2A = 7.2 × 104 N C–1
EA is directed toward the right.
The electric field vector E1B at B due to the positive charge q1 points towards the left and has a
magnitude

E1B =
( 9 ´ 10 Nm C ) ´ (10 C ) = 3.6 ´ 10
9 2 -2 -8
4
N C -1
( 0.05 m) 2

The electric field vector E2B at B due to the negative charge q2 points towards the right and has a
magnitude

E2B =
(9 ´ 10 Nm C ) ´ (10 C ) = 4 ´ 10 N C
9 2 -2 -8
3 -1

( 0.15 m) 2

The magnitude of the total electric field at B is

EB = E1B – E2B = 3.2 × 104 N C–1

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EB is directed towards the left.

The magnitude of each electric field vector at point C, due to charge q1 and q2 is

E1C = E2C =
( 9 ´ 10 Nm C ) ´ (10 C ) = 9 ´ 10 N C
9 2 -2 -8
3 -1

( 0.10 m) 2

The directions in which these two vectors point are indicated in the above. The resultant of these two
vectors is
p p
EC = E1 cos + E2 cos = 9 ´ 103 N C -1
3 3
EC points towards the right.

ELECTRIC FIELD LINE

The line of force in an electric field is an imaginary line, the tangent to which at any point on it represents the
direction of electric field at the given point.
Direction: The electric line of force is the path along which a unit positive charge will move, if it is free to do so.
Magnitude: The magnitude of the field is represented by the density of field lines. E is strong near the charge, so the
density of field lines is more near the charge and the lines are closer. Away from the charge, the field gets weaker and
the density of field lines is less, resulting in well-separated lines. An infinite number of lines can be drawn in any region.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE

1) a) If there is only one positive charge then lines start from positive charge and terminate at ∞
b) If there is only one negative charge then lines start from ∞ and terminates at negative charge.
c) Line of force originates out from a positive charge and terminates on a negative charge.
d) The lines of force possess longitudinal tension, i.e., they tend to contract longitudinally or lengthwise. This
explains attraction between unlike charges.
e) The lines of force exert lateral pressure on one another, i.e., they tend to repel each other. This explains
repulsion between like charges.

2) The electric intensity at a point is proportional to the number of lines of force streaming through per unit area
normal to the direction of the intensity at that point. The intensity will be more where the density of lines is
more.

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3) Two electric lines of force never cross each other. As two different directions of electric field at a single
point P is not possible.

4) The lines of force are always perpendicular to the surface of a charged conductor. In Figure, the lines of force
are shown to leave the surface of a positively charged conductor normally.

This is because the electric field just outside the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to the surface. If the
electric field were not perpendicular to the surface of the conductor, then there would be a component of the
field along the surface of the conductor. This would cause movement of electrons in the conductor and a
current would flow. But we are dealing with an electrostatic situation where no current is flowing. So, there
can be no component of the field parallel to the surface of the conductor. Thus, we conclude that the field is
perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.
5) Consider a conductor with a cavity, with no charges inside the cavity. whatever be the size and shape of the
cavity and whatever be the charge on the conductor and the external field in which it might be placed, the
electric field inside the cavity is zero.

Whatever be the charge and field configuration outside, any cavity in a conductor remains shielded from
outside electric influence: the field inside the cavity is always zero. This is known as electrostatic shielding.
The effect can be made use of in protecting sensitive instruments from outside electrical influence.

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NEUTRAL POINT
In order to understand the concept of neutral point, consider two equal and
similar point charges separated by a certain distance as shown in figure. There
is a point N exactly mid-way between the two charges at which if a test charge
is placed, it will not experience any force. In other words, the electric field
intensity at the point N is zero. This point N is called the neutral point.
If a test charge is placed at N and is moved slightly to the right or left, it will
experience a restoring force which will tend to bring the test charge back to N.
On the other hand, if the test charge is moved slightly above or below N, it
would experience an electric force which would take the test charge away from N. i.e. along x- axis it is in stable
equilibrium and along y-axis it will be in unstable equilibrium. But overall it is considered to be in un stable
equilibrium.

ELECTRIC DIPOLE
System of two equal and opposite charges separated by a certain small distance.

ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT

It is a vector quantity, with magnitude equal to the product of either of the charges and the length of the electric
dipole
® !!"
p = q (2a)
Its direction is from the negative charge to the positive charge.

ELECTRIC FIELD ON AXIAL LINE OF AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE

Let P be at distance r from the centre of the dipole on the side of charge q. Then,
q
E- q = - p!
4 pe0 (r + a)
2

!p
Where, is the unit vector along the dipole axis (from − q to q). Also,
q
E+ q = - p!
4 pe0 (r - a)
2

The total field at P is

q é 1 1 ù! q 4ar !
E = E+ q + E- q = ê - 2ú
p= p
4 pe0 êë (r - a) (r + a) úû
2
4 pe0 (r - a2 )2
2

For r >> a
4qa !
E= p
4 pe0r 3 (r > > a)

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2p é"® !ù
®
E= p = q ´ 2ap
4 pe 0r 3 êë úû

ELECTRIC FIELD FOR POINTS ON THE EQUATORIAL PLANE

The magnitudes of the electric field due to the two charges +q and −q are given by,
q 1
E+ q =
4 pe 0 r + a2
2

q 1
E- q =
4 pe 0 r + a2
2

\ E+q = E-q
The directions of E+q and E−q are as shown in the figure. The components normal to the
dipole axis cancel away. The components along the dipole axis add up
\ Total electric field
E = -(E+q + E-q) cos q p! [Negative sign shows that field is opposite to p! ]
2qa
E=- 3
p!
4 pe0 (r + a
2
)
2 2

At large distances (r >> a), this reduces to

2qa !
E=- p
4 pe 0r 3
® ®
"p = q´ 2a p!
®
-p
\E = (r >> a)
4pe0r3
PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF DIPOLES
In most molecules, the centers of positive charges and of negative charges lie at the same place. Therefore, their
dipole moment is zero. CO2 and CH4 are of this type of molecules. However, they develop a dipole moment when an
electric field is applied. But in some molecules, the centers of negative charges and of positive charges do not
coincide. Therefore, they have a permanent electric dipole moment, even in the absence of an electric field. Such
molecules are called polar molecules. Water molecules, H2O, are an example of this type. Various materials give rise
to interesting properties and important applications in the presence or absence of electric field

DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD

Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges −q and +q and of
®
length 2a placed in a uniform electric field E making an angle q with
electric field.
® ®
Force on charge −q at A = -qE (opposite to E )
® ®
Force on charge +q at B = qE (along E )

Electric dipole is under the action of two equal and unlike parallel forces, which give rise to a torque on the dipole.
τ = Force × Perpendicular distance between the two forces
τ = qE (AN) = qE (2a sin q)

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τ = q(2a) E sinq
τ = pE sinq
® ® ®
\t = p´ E

Electric Flux
The term 'flux' is borrowed from hydrodynamics. This term implies some kind of flow.
The electric flux through a surface inside an electric field is the total number of electric lines of force crossing the
surface in a direction normal to the surface. It is a property of electric field.

Electric flux is a scalar quantity. Electric flux through a surface is denoted by fE. But electric flux through a closed
surface is denoted by FE.

RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FLUX AND ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

! !!"
Consider some surface in an electric field E . Let us select a small area element dS on this surface. The electric flux of
! ""!
the field over the area element is given by d f E = [Link]
or dfE = EdS cos q
or dfE = (E cos q) dS
or dfE = EndS
!!"
where En is the component of electric field in the direction of dS .
! ""!
The electric flux over the whole area is given by ò
S ò
fE = [Link] = EndS
S

The vector for the area is always drawn normal to the surface. For a closed surface, the flux of the field is given by
! ""!
ò
FE = [Link] = EndS
S ò
S .

SURFACE INTEGRAL
!!"
The surface integral denotes that the surface has to be divided into infinitesimal elements of plane area dS and the
! ""!
scalar quantity [Link] is to be calculated for each element. The sum of such values is equal to the total flux for the
entire surface.
! ""!
fE = å
All area
[Link]

\ elements

It is assumed that electric field is uniform over area element. This assumption can be valid only if we increase the
number of area elements by making them smaller and smaller in size. In thelimiting case, the above equation shall
take the form of the surface integral.

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SPECIAL CASES
(i) When q > 90°, fE is negative,
(ii) When q = 90°, fE is zero,
(iii) When q < 90°, fE is positive.
Electric flux through area element and closed surface
[Link]. Electric flux through area element dS Electric flux through closed surface
1. It is affected by the charges present It depends only upon the charges
outside the surface. enclosed by the closed surface.
2. If the positions of the ‘inside charges’ is It does not depend upon the location
changed, then the electric flux may of the ‘inside charges’.
change.
3. It is denoted by fE. It is denoted by FE.
The SI unit of electric flux is N m2 C–1 or J m C–1.

GAUSS’S LAW
It states that the total electric flux through a closed surface enclosing a
1
e
charge is equal to 0 times the magnitude of the charge enclosed.
q
f=
e0
® ®
f = ò E .ds
However, s

∴ Gauss theorem may be expressed as

® ® q
òs E .ds = e0

Proof
Consider that a point electric charge q is situated at the centre of a sphere of radius ‘a’.
According to Coulomb’s law,
® 1 q!
E= . a
4 pe0 a2
Where, a! is unit vector along the line OP
®
The electric flux through area element ds is given by,
® ®
df = E .ds
1 q! ®
= [Link]
4 pe 0 a2
1 q
= . (1 )( ds ) cos 0°
4 pe 0 a2

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1 q
df = ds
4 pe 0 a2
Therefore, electric flux through the closed surface of the sphere,
1 q
f = ò df = ò . ds
s s
4 pe0 a2
1 q 1 q
= . 2 ò ds = ´ 4 pa2
4 pe 0 a s 4 pe 0 a2

q
\f =
e0
It proves the Gauss theorem in electrostatics.

Application of Gauss’s Law

Electric field due to continuous charge distribution can be calculated with the help of Gauss law.
Continuous Charged Systems
A system of closely spaced charges is said to form a continuous charge distribution.
i) Line charge density or linear charge density:
Linear charge density is charge per unit length. It is denoted by l (Lambda) or µ (mu). It is +
measured in coulomb/metre (or) (Cm-1) +
q +
l= q + L
l +
!
()
q = ò l r ¢ dl +
+
Total charge on lines l, l
+
ii) Surface density of charge:
+ + + + + + + + + + + Area = A
Surface charge density is charge per unit area. It is + + + + + + + + + + +
denoted by s (sigma) and is measured in + + +q + + + + + + + +
q + + + + + + + + + + +
s=
2
coulomb/metre (Cm ). -2 S + + + + + + + + + + +
!
q = ò s r¢ dS()
Total charge on surface (S) is S Volume (V)
+ + +
iii) Volume density of charge: +
+ + + +
q +
Volume charge density is charge per unit volume. It is denoted by r (rho). + + +
It is measured in coulomb/metre3(Cm-3). + + +
+ + + +
q + +
r= +
V

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!
()
Total charge on volume(V) is q = ò r r¢ dV .
V
+
+
FIELD DUE TO AN INFINITELY LONG +
STRAIGHT UNIFORMLY CHARGED WIRE Gaussian +
surface +
Consider a thin infinitely long straight-line charge of linear charge + ds
density λ. + a
+ l
p E
Let P be the point at a distance ‘a’ from the line. To find electric field +
at point P, draw a cylindrical surface of radius ‘a’ and length l. +
+
If E is the magnitude of electric field at point P, then electric flux +
through the Gaussian surface is given by, +
+
f = E × Area of the curved surface of a cylinder of radius r and length l
f = E × 2πal ___________
(i)
According to Gauss theorem, we have
q
f=
e0
!q = ll
ll
!f =
e0 ___________(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain
ll
E ´ 2pal =
e0

1 l
E´ =
2pe0 a

FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED THIN SPHERICAL SHELL

When point P lies outside the spherical shell Gaussian surface
Suppose that we have to calculate electric field at the point ®
P at a distance r (r > R) from its centre. Draw the Gaussian E
R P
surface through point P so as to enclose the charged ds
spherical shell. The Gaussian surface is a spherical shell of r
radius r and centre O.
®
Let E be the electric field at point P. Then, the electric flux
® Charged
through area element ds is given by, Spherical shell
® ®
df = E .ds
®
Since dS is also along normal to the surface,
df = E ds

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\ Total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,

f = ò Eds = E ò ds
S S

ò dS = 4pr
2
Now,
\f = E ´ 4pr2 __________
(i)
Since the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is q, according to Gauss theorem,
q
f=
e0 __________
(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain
q
E ´ 4 pr 2 =
e0
1 q
E= = 2
4 pe 0 r (for r > R
When point P lies inside the spherical shell
In such a case, the Gaussian surface encloses no charge.
According to Gauss law,
E × 4πr2 = 0
i.e., = E = 0 (r < R)

FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY CHARGED INFINITE PLANE SHEET

Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive charge having a uniform surface charge density σ on both sides of the
sheet. Let P be the point at a distance ‘a’ from the sheet at which electric field is required. Draw a Gaussian cylinder
of area of cross-section A through point P.

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
Area = A
® + + + + ®
E + + + + E
P
+ + + +
+ + + + + + + Gaussian
Planet sheet + + + + + + + surface
of charge

The electric flux crossing through the Gaussian surface is given by,
f = E × Area of the circular caps of the cylinder
Since electric lines of force are parallel to the curved surface of the cylinder, the flux due to electric field of the plane
sheet of charge passes only through the two circular caps of the cylinder.
f = E × 2A __________
(i)
According to Gauss theorem, we have

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q
f=
e0
Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface,
q = σA
sA
\f =
e0 __________
(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii), we obtain
sA
E ´ 2A =
e0

s
E=
2e 0

FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY DUE TO A NON-CONDUCTING CHARGED SOLID

SPHERE
Suppose a non-conducting solid sphere of radius R and centre O has uniform volume density of charge r.
!
We have to calculate electric field intensity E at any point P, where OP = r. With O as centre and r as radius, imagine
!
a sphere S, which acts as a Gaussian surface. At every points of S, magnitude of E is same, directed radially outwards.

If q¢ is the charge enclosed by the sphere S, then according to Gauss’s law

! ""! ! q¢
òS [Link] = òS # = òS ds = Î
[Link]

Where Îis electrical permittivity of the material of the insulating sphere?

q¢ q¢
( )
E 4 pr2 =
Î
E=
4 pÎr2
\ or __________
(1)
Now, charge inside S i.e., q¢ = volume of S × volume density of charge
4
q¢ = p r 3 ´r
3
4 p r 3r r r
E= =
From (33), 3 4 pÎr2 3 Î

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rr
E=
i.e., 3Î
Clearly, E µ r.
i.e. electric intensity at any point inside a non-conducting charged solid sphere varies directly as the distance of the
point from the centre of the sphere.
At the centre of the sphere, r = 0,
\ E=0
At the surface of the sphere,
r=R
Rr
E=
\ 3 Î Þ maximum.
We have already proved that outside the sphere,
E µ 1/r2.

All these results are plotted in figure above which represents the variation of electric field intensity E with distance (r)
from the centre of a non-conducting uniformly charged solid sphere.

FIELD DUE TO A UNIFORMLY DUE TO TWO THIN INFINITE PARALLEL SHEETS

OF CHARGE
Let A and B be two thin infinite plane charged sheets held parallel to each other, Figure. 1.62

Suppose
s1 = Uniform surface density of charge on A
s2 = Uniform surface density of charge on B

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s1 s
E1 = E2 = 2
If E1, E2 are electric field intensities at a point due to charged sheets A and B respectively, then
2 Î0 and 2 Î0
.
The arrangement shows three regions I, II and III. We apply superposition principle to calculate the net field intensity
in the three regions. As a matter of convention, a field pointing from left to right is taken as positive and the one
pointing from right to left is taken as negative.
We assume that s1 > s2 > 0
\ In region I, E1 = – E1 – E2
-s1 s2 -1
EI = - = ( s1 + s2 )
\
2 Î0 2 Î0 2 Î0 __________
(1)
Similarly, in region II,
s1 s 1
EII = E1 - E2 = - 2 = ( s1 - s2 )
2 Î0 2 Î0 2 Î0 __________
(2)
and, in region III,
s1 s -1
EIII = E1 + E2 = + 2 = ( s1 + s2 )
2 Î0 2 Î0 2 Î0 __________
(3)
Special cases: Suppose s1 = s, and s2 = – s
i.e., two thin infinite plane sheets with equal and opposite uniform surface densities of charge are held parallel to each
other.
From (1). EI = 0
From (3). EIII = 0
2s s
From (2). EII = = = constant .
2 Î0 Î0

Thus, field intensity in between such sheets having equal and opposite uniform surface densities of charge becomes
!
constant i.e., a uniform electric field is produced in between two such sheets. Also, E does not depend upon the
distance between the thin sheets.
This is how uniform electric fields are produced in practice.

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Illustration 3: The electric field components in Figure. 1.54 are Ex =

ax1/2, Ey = Ez = 0, in which a = 800 N/C m1/2. Calculate
(a) the flux through the cube, and
(b) the charge within the cube. Assume that a = 0.1 m.
Solution: (a) Since the electric field has only an x
component, for faces perpendicular to x direction, the
angle between E and DS is ± p/2. Therefore, the flux f
= [Link] is separately zero for each face of the cube
except the two shaded ones. Now the magnitude of the
electric field at the left face is
EL = ax1/2 = aa1/2 (x = a at the left face).
The magnitude of electric field at the right face is
ER = ax1/2 = a(2a)1/2 (x = 2a at the right face).
The corresponding fluxes are

fL = [Link] = DSEL⋅ n̂L =EL ΔS cosθ = –EL ΔS, since θ = 180°

= –ELa2
fR = ER.ΔS = ER ΔS cosθ = ER ΔS, since θ = 0°
= ERa2
Net flux through the cube
= fR + fL = ERa2 – ELa2 = a2(ER – EL) = aa2 [(2a)1/2 – a1/2]

= aa5/2
( 2 -1 )
= 800 (0.1)5/2 ( 2 -1 )
= 1.05 N m2 C–1
(b) We can use Gauss’s law to find the total charge q inside the cube.
We have f = q/ε0 or q = fε0. Therefore,
q = 1.05 × 8.854 × 10–12 C = 9.27 × 10–12 C.
Illustration 4: A charge Q µC is placed at the centre of a cube. What is the electric flux coming out from any one
surface?
Solution: By Gauss’s theorem
q
f=
Total flux through cube e0

Charge is present at the centre therefore; electric flux is distributed symmetrically in all directions.
1 1æ q ö q
= f= ç ÷=
6 6 è e0 ø 6e0
\ Flux linked with one face
Illustration 5: A point charge causes and electric flux -3 × 10-14 N-m2/C to pass through a spherical Gaussian surface.
(a) Calculate the value of the point charge.

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(b) If the radius of the Gaussian surface is double, how much flux would pass through the surface
Solution: (a) By Gauss’s theorem, total electric flux through closed Gaussian surface.
q
f=
e0 \ q = fe0,
But electric flux passing through the surface
f = -3 × 10-14 N-m2/C -q
\ q = (-3 × 10-14) × 8.85 × 10-12
= -26.55 × 10-26 C
= -2.655 × 10-25 C
(b) Electric flux passing through the surface remains unchanged because it depends only on
charge enclosed by the surface and is independent of its size.
Illustration 6: Figure shows a section of an infinite rod of charge having linear charge density l which is constant for
all points on the line. Find electric field E at a distance r from the line.
r E
+ + + ++ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

!
!
Solution: From symmetry, E due to a uniform linear charge can only be radially directed. As a Gaussian surface, we
can choose a circular cylinder of radius r and length l, closed at each end by plane caps normal to the axis.
! !
eo ò E. ds = qin
! ! ! !
eo é ò [Link] + ò [Link] ù = qin
ë û
Cylindrical Plane Surface
eo E (2prl) + [Link]. cos 90o = ll
ll l
E= =
eo 2prl 2pe 0r
!
The direction of E is radially outward for a line of positive charge.

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Important Results
Electric Fields due to continuous charge distribution

1 Q
K ésinq1 + sinq2 ùû
Lr ë

2 Zero at centre

3 r
KQ
(R )
3/2
2
+ r2

4 s é x ù
ê1 - ú
2e 0 ëê x 2 + R 2 ûú

Electric Flux
1 4

2 5

3 6

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