UNIT 9 : SOURCES AND HISTORIOGRAPHY OF

MEDIEVAL INDIA

UNIT STRUCTURE

9.1. Learning Objectives

9.2. Introduction
9.3. Literary Sources of Medieval India

 Native

 Foreign

9.4. Archaeological Sources

9.5 Historiography of medieval India
9.6 Let us Sum Up
9.7 Further Reading
9.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
9.9 Model Questions

9.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

 describe and discuss the varied literary sources for the study of

medieval India,

 discuss the foreign literary accounts that throw light on the medieval

times and,

 explain the various archaeological sources and remains of medieval

India.

9.2 INTRODUCTION

The Unit will introduce us to the varied sources available for the
extensive study of the medieval period. The sources are mainly literary and
archaeological sources.

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The medieval India is rich with abundant sources left by the natives
as well as the foreigners. Besides the invaluable accounts of the native and
the foreign travellers, coins and inscriptions have also been featured in the
unit as they provide a clear glimpse into the different aspects of medieval
life. This Unit will discuss the various sources that help us to reconstruct
the history of medieval India.

9.3 LITERARY SOURCES OF MEDIEVAL INDIA

The accounts of the Muslim scholars and the foreign travellers throw
much light on the history of medieval India. The court historians were
appointed with the purpose of maintaining a chronological account of the
events that occurred. However, there is a doubt on the objectivity of the
records as most of them were exaggerated accounts in favour of the powerful
rulers.

 Native Literary Sources

We will now look into the native literary texts that give us a vivid
description of the medieval period.

The Chachnama, originally written in Arabic and later translated to

Persian, gives in details, the account of the Muslim victory over Sind. The
history of Sind and Muslim invasions can be known from the Mir Mohammad
Masoom's work, "Tarikh-i-Sind". Ferishta, in the book "Muhammad-Bin-
Kasim" tells us about the contemporary history of the Sultanate period.

Al-Beruni was one such Muslim scholar who had accompanied

Sultan Mahmud of Ghajni and he left behind a rich source of history in his
work Tahqik-e-Hind. In this book, he describes the Mahmud invasions and
many socio-political details. This book forms a primary source of information
for all matters, social, religious, political etc. Tarikh-i-Yamini is a work on the
reign of Sabuktagin and Sultan Mahmud.

In Zaimul Akhbar, we find the account of Mahmud of Ghajni and the

work, Tarikh-i-Baihaqi indulges in details regarding the court and nobilities

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of Mahmud.

Taj-ul-Massir which was authored by Hasan Nizami throws light on

the history of the Delhi Sultanate and especially on the reign of Qutub-ud-
din Aibak. It gives the details about the military exploits of Aibak and about
the reigns of Iltutmish till 1217 AD.

Tabaquat-i-Nasiri written by Minhaj-us-Siraj gives a detailed

account of the history of the Delhi Sultans till 1206 AD. It gives us a firsthand
account of the invasion of Muhammad Ghori.

Amir Khusru was another luminary who was more of a poet than a
historian, but his works Tughlaq-nama, Khazain-ul-Futuh and Khiran-us-
Sadain are a valuable source of information. Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi by Ziauddin
Barani gives an account of the Tughlaq dynasty.

The Babur-nama records the life of Babur with a few gaps and it is
held in high esteem by the historians. The work was translated in Persian
four times and one of it was completed by Abdur Rahim Khan-i-khanan, the
son of Bairam Khan. The Humayun-namah by Gulbadan Begum, sister
of Humayun, was written at the command of Akbar. The Humayun-namah
is a memoir that throws little light on Babur but reveals Humayun's life through
the battles, his victories and defeats, the hardships he faced. Besides, the
Humayun- namah tells a lot about the society and the customs that prevailed
then.

Mirza Haider's Tarikh-i-Rashidi gives an interesting account of the

battle of Kanauj which is difficult to find in any other contemporary works.
Mirza was Babur's cousin and he praised Babur for his generosity while
describing the habits and character of Humayun clearly.

We find a detailed and authentic account of Akbar's time in the work

Akbarnamah by Abul Fazl. His mastery over style is reflected in his work.
The Akbarnamah is divided into three parts. The first part consists of the
royal history from Timur to Humayun, including the birth of Akbar. The second
part deals with the reign of Akbar till 1602, due to Abul Fazl's sudden death
in the same year. The events have been narrated chronologically and

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recorded in detail. The other most important work of Fazl was Ain-i-Akbari
which is a compilation of the administrative system under various
departments. The works have historical value due to their detailed
observation of the economic conditions and political events of that time.

Tabaqt-i-Akbari was another important work by Nizamuddin, who

served as Akbar's Mir Bakshi. It is divided into three parts and it gives an
account of the Muslim rule from the times of the Ghaznavids in India upto
Akbar's time. However, Nizamuddin does not throw light on Akbar's views
on religion and the author himself abstains from providing any critique to the
events.

Tarikh-i-Badauni or Muntakhab-ut-Twarikh was penned by Mulla

Abdul Qadir Badauni. It was written during Akbar's time and it records the
reign of Babur, Humayun and Akbar. Badauni was a critic of Akbar's religious
policy and condemned Abul Fazl, Faizi and others. He disliked Akbar's policy
of toleration and also his providing patronage to men of different religious
backgrounds.

Jahangir wrote his autobiography named Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri which

is an account of his reign. The memoir is rich in detail regarding the social,
political, military and other aspects of life of his times. However, the Tuzuk-
i-Jahangiri records Jahangir's reign till the seventeenth year and the last
two years of his reign was recorded by Mutamid Khan. Another
comprehensive work on Jahangir was Iqbalnamah-i-Jahangiri by Mutamid
Khan. Maasir-i-Jahangiri was also an important work of this period based
on original sources.

Padshah namah was another illustrious work on the reign of Shah

Jahan. Abul Hamid Lahori's Padshah namah is considered important
because of the fact that it covers 20 years of Shah Jahan as an Emperor.
Shah Jahan Namah of Enayet Khan and Amal-i-Shahi of Md Salih offers
detailed accounts of the important persons of his reign. For the study of the
period of Aurangzeb we can get valuable information in the writings of Khafi
Khan's Muntakhab-ul-Lubab, Mirza Muhammad Kazim's Alamgirnama,
Muhammad Saqi's Maasir-i-Alamgiri, Sujan Rai Khatri's Khulasat-ut-
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Tawarikh, Bhimsen's Nushka-i-Dilkusha and Ishwar Das's Fatuhat-i-

Alamgiri.

 Foreign literary sources

Francois Bernier who spent 12 years in the court of Aurangzeb

gives a detailed account of the life in the harem. He also mentions about
women and specifically the royal ladies. His work is carried forward by
another foreign traveller, Nicolai Manucci who had served under Dara and
then under Aurangzeb. His work Storia Do Mogor is all about the royal
men and women and the households along with the harem culture. He also
mentions the stern steps taken by Aurangzeb against the consumption of
wines, drugs, music and indulgence in such other acitivities.

Among the literary sources by foreign travellers, we must mention

Ibn Batuta, a Morrocan traveller who came to India during the time of Md
Bin Tughlaq. His work Kitab-ur-Rehla describes the social and political
condition of India during Md Tughlaq's reign. It is an account of his experience
in Delhi and Madurai and of the cuisines of the Sultanate rulers. However, it
lacked objectivity. Another foreign traveller was Abdur Razzak, a Persian
who has given an account of the Vijayanagar kingdom and its administration.
His work serves as a primary source on the cultural history of the Vijayanagar
kingdom. Marco Polo who visited South India in the 13th century has written
about the maritime trade that flourished. Nicolo Conti has also written on
the society and economy of South India.

Regional histories also form a rich source for the study of medieval
India. In this category, reference must be made of the histories of the Sultani
Empire like the Twarikh-i-Sind (the history of Sind) by Mir Muhammad
Masum. Ghulam Hussain's work on the history of Bengal, Riyaz-us-Salatin,
records the event from Bakhtiyar Kahlji's invasion till 1788. The history of
the Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmadnagar is mentioned in the work by Sayyid
Ali titled Burhan-i-Masir. Twarikh-i-Gujrat by Abu Tarab Ali throws light on
the history of Gujrat. Twarikh-ul-Mulek by Rafiuddin Shilagi records the
history of the Bahmani kingdom. The history of Kashmir upto 1149 AD, is
recorded in the grand work, Rajtarangini authored by Kalhana. Prithvi Raj

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Raso by Chand Bardai throws light on the Rajput history and more
specifically on the conflict between Prithvi Raj Chauhan and Muhammad
Ghuri. For a dependable history of the Chauhan rulers of Ajmer, the Prithvi
Raj Vijaya Kavya by Jayanaka provides much information.

 Bards and Oral sources

Bards or charans and oral narratives also offer a deep insight into
the historical events of any period. These are passed on from generation to
generation and associated with families. In Rajasthan, the bardic
compositions consists of epic poems, which fall under two categories- one
in which the poems are dedicated to the brave Rajput heroes while the
other is related to the matters of a Rajput household. Dingala was the
language used in the composition of these chronicles. Khyats of Rajputana
were composed as an inspiration from the Mughal royal court. As a prose
chronicle, khyats recorded the facts as witnessed by the author.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

1. Name the Muslim scholar that who accompanied Mahmud of
Ghazni in his expeditions.
...............................................................................................
2. Who was the author of Tarikh-i-Firuz-Shahi?
...............................................................................................
3. The history of which dynasty is recorded in Burhan-i-Masir?
...............................................................................................

9.4 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

Inscriptions and coins fall within the category of archaeology.

Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions and includes the task of deciphering
the text and examining the information. We will focus on inscriptions and
coins of medieval India to understand that era.
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 Inscriptions

Monumental works of the Sultanate period reveal the trend of

intermingling of Hindu and Muslim architectural traditions and structural
designs throw light on the socio-cultural outlook of the sovereigns and nobles
of that age.

The three scripts belonging to the early medieval period of South

India that have been found are- Grantha, Tamil and Vatteluttu. While the first
was used for writing Sanskrit, the other two were used for writing Tamil.
Donative records in Tamil have been found in the South. Donative records
include the grant of royal land or installation of religious images inscribed on
the walls, gateways and railings, in stone or copper plates

Khanaqah-i-Mu'alla, Jami Masjid of Srinagar, the mosque of

Sayyid Muhammad Madani and the tomb of Sultan Zain Ul-'Abidin's
mother are a few monuments that enables us to reconstruct the history of
Kashmir. Khanaqah-i- M u'alla is a muslim shrine dedicated to the Muslim
preacher, Shah Hamadan. It was constructed by Sultan Sikander in 1395 in
wood. The Khanaqah-i Mu'alla gave a new lease of life to the once dying
trend of wooden architecture and woodwork. Jam-i-Masjid is a reminder of
the large scale conversions to Islam necessitating the establishment of a
big mosque to accommodate a large gathering. The tomb of Sultan Zain
Ul-'Abidin's mother known as Budshahs Dumath testifies to the use of
tombs. The double domed tomb reveals the direct impact of Timurid
architecture. The epitaphs are bi- lingual - Sanskrit at the top and Persian at
the bottom. The calligraphic art of the period can be traced from it. Nasakh
and Nasta'liq was used in carving the inscription. The monuments throw
light on the impact of Persian and Central Asian architecture on Kashmir.

Inscriptions manage to capture the historical moments as a record

of a specific event. The inscriptions are found in the temple walls or columns
or a stone slab. The inscriptions of South India throw light on the practice of
religious donations. Some scholars believe that the inscriptions often refer
to different groups belonging to different background contrary to the textual
facts that talk of elite composition in matters of land grants. The inscription
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mentions the peasants, warriors, their wives, daughters besides the priestly
class and the royalty. The inscriptions also reveal much detail about the
political and social structure through the religious grants, which can be of
great social significance.

Noboru Karasimha used inscriptions specially the stone inscriptions

to understand different village communities. Inscriptions help in building a
chronological structure of the regional kingdoms, along with deepening our
knowledge of the functioning of the religious institutions and role of patronage
besides other things.

Epigraphic records have been found in Delhi composed by the

merchant families. There is a reference to Palam Baoli inscription of 1276
AD composed by Pandita Yogisvara written in Sanskrit. The Sarban stone
inscription in Sanskrit found in Delhi refers to the construction of a well in
the Sarban village. The terms "Mlechcha" and "Turuska" were seen to be
used in the inscription.

While inscriptions serve as a primary source and are durable, they

alone cannot provide a whole picture of an event and hence need to be
supplemented or corroborated by textual data and facts.

 Numismatic sources or Coins

New patterns of coinage emerged with the advent of the Muslim rule
in India. The Sultanate coins carried inscriptions on both sides either in
Arabic or in the Persian script. Inscribing the ruler's name on the coin had
Islamic importance as it implied the definitive assumption of legal power by
him. Thus, inscribing the name of the rulers with their titles and issuing
them on auspicious occasions like victory of a fort, town etc along with the
date in the Hijri era and the place of the issue of coins became a practice.

Mohammad Ghori after the second battle of Thanesvara or Tarain in

1192 struck gold coins with the name Mohammed bin Sam in Nagari script
and an image of a seated Lakhsmi on the obverse. Iltutmish issued silver
coins with legends inscribed on them. Balban issued coins with his name
inscribed in Arabic. Mohammed Tughluq was known for his experimentation

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with coinage. His earlier coins in gold and silver had a standard weight of
170 grains. He later started issuing gold dinars of 201.5 grains and silver
adlis of 144 grains.

The Delhi Sultans minted a type of coin termed jital. Basically, it was
used for cash transactions below the value of half a tanka. The prices of
essential commodities and wages were paid in jitals. From the mid-thirteenth
century the silver content of each jital was denominated as gani or dramma.
However, the coins started disappearing from circulation in early 1315.

The Khalji and the early Tughluq periods were marked by the increase
in the size of the silver coin. This indicates that money was used extensively.

The art of minting is best reflected in the Chola coins. The Chola
rulers issued gold coins. Similarly, most of the Vijayanagar coins were of
gold. Harihara and Devaraya II are known to have issued silver coins. The
Vijayanagar rulers used Nagari, Kannada and Telugu scripts on their coins.

Foreign trade formed an integral part of the medieval economy. While

the economy flourished in medieval northern India, there were inroads of
foreign silver from the European shores and countries like Iran. However,
the crisis of silver compelled the Delhi Sultanate to resort to a system of
copper coinage. The fall of silver had an impact on the Indian Ocean trade.
The proportion of gold increased at the expense of silver. Copper coins
flowed in from Egypt and was employed in the Indian Ocean Trade. In the
fifteenth century, South India maintained its gold standard and the region
continued to maintain an export surplus by sending spices of the Levant.
On the positive side, metal coinage continued to exist due to the maritime
trade that resulted in the entry of gold and silver.

The introduction of token currency was an innovative practice in

medieval India. Under the Mamluk dynasty, during the rule of Shamsuddin
Iltutmish (1210-1235), Arabic inscriptions with geometric designs were found
on the coins. On the coins of the Bengal Sultan, Ilyas Shahi Sultan, both
calligraphy and geometric designs were found. Living beings were found to
be depicted in the coins of Akbar and Jahangir.

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The coins of this period provide information on the political pursuits

and economic conditions of the Delhi Sultanate. Even though coins were
minted under the earlier establishment, yet it was after the coming of the
Sultanate rule that a serious attempt was made at standardization of the
monetary economy.

Mahmud of Ghazni issued silver coins with his name inscribed on

them in two different languages. The denominations of the coins were tanka,
dirhams and jitals. Iltutmish's coins describe him as Khalifa. Balban issued
silver coins called tanka while Alaudin Khilji struck coins with honorific epithets
including the title of Sikandar al Sani-meaning the second Alexander. Though
the coins of the Tughlaqs were superior in design and execution compared
to those of the Khiljis yet many of their monetary experiments turned out as
a failure. Copper coins were mostly issued during the Lodi rule. Provinces
of Bengal, Jaunpur, Deccan, Malwa and Gujarat also minted coins.

The coins of Balban lacked aesthetic appeal and these were

recognised only for their monetary value. However, despite the prohibition
imposed by Islam on displaying animals or human beings, Akbar and Jahangir
struck coins with their portraits on them. Jahangir issued coins which carried
his image and that of Begum Nur Jahan.

The Mughal coins were struck in three metals-gold, silver and copper.
By the fifteenth century, coinage had been heavily debased and the main
coin was a copper tanka with a progressively declining silver alloy. Sher
Shah eliminated the debased coinage and minted the first rupee, a coin of
178 grains of virtually pure silver. By the sixteenth century, rupee had become
the basic unit of currency actually in use. The influx of New World silver
from 1550 to 1750 expanded money circulation not only in the absolutist
terms of metal but most important in terms of transaction.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answer the following questions:

4. What was particular about the coins of Akbar and Jahangir?
...............................................................................................
5. Who struck coins with the honorific title of Sikandar al Sani?
...............................................................................................
6. Calligraphy and geometric designs are found in whose coins?
...............................................................................................
7. Who composed the Palam Baoli inscription?
...............................................................................................
8. Which monument speaks of the dying trend of wooden
architecture and woodwork?
...............................................................................................

9.5 HISTORIOGRAPHY OF MEDIEVAL INDIA

The historiography of medieval Indian history is a multifaceted field that has

evolved over time with contributions from various scholars.
Colonial Historiography: The study of medieval Indian history began in
earnest during the colonial period when European scholars, primarily Brit-
ish, started exploring and documenting India's past. Notable figures include
James Mill, who wrote "The History of British India," and Mountstuart
Elphinstone, whose work "History of India" provided significant insights into
medieval Indian society and politics.
Nationalist Historiography: With the rise of Indian nationalism in the late
19th and early 20th centuries, Indian scholars began reinterpreting medi-
eval Indian history from an indigenous perspective. Figures like R.C.
Majumdar, Jadunath Sarkar, and K.M. Munshi played key roles in this move-
ment. They sought to highlight India's rich cultural heritage and challenge
colonial interpretations of its past.
Marxist Historiography: Marxist historians like D.D. Kosambi and R.S.
Sharma offered new insights into medieval Indian history by analyzing so-

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cioeconomic structures, class dynamics, and the role of feudalism. They

emphasized the material conditions of medieval Indian society and the
struggles of the peasantry and lower classes.
Subaltern Studies: Subaltern scholars, notably Ranajit Guha and Dipesh
Chakrabarty, critiqued mainstream historiography for its focus on elites and
rulers. They advocated for a history from below, highlighting the agency and
resistance of marginalized groups such as peasants, women, and tribal
communities.
Postcolonial Historiography: Postcolonial scholars like Romila Thapar
and Satish Chandra challenged colonial and nationalist narratives, empha-
sizing the need for multiple perspectives and a critical engagement with
sources. They explored issues of identity, religion, and cultural exchange in
medieval India.
Regional Histories: Medieval India was a diverse and fragmented land-
scape, and scholars have increasingly focused on regional histories to un-
derstand its complexity better. Studies on specific regions like South India,
Bengal, Gujarat, and the Deccan have enriched our understanding of local
dynamics and cultural interactions.
Interdisciplinary Approaches: Recent trends in historiography have seen
a shift towards interdisciplinary approaches, incorporating insights from ar-
chaeology, literary studies, art history, and anthropology. This interdiscipli-
nary approach has deepened our understanding of medieval Indian society
and culture beyond traditional historical sources.
Overall, the historiography of medieval Indian history is character-
ized by a rich diversity of perspectives, methodologies, and debates, re-
flecting the complexity and dynamism of India's past.

9.6 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that:–

 Sources- literary, archaeological, provide valuable information about

the different aspects of medieval life.

 The Indo-Muslim scholars and historians give us a valuable insight

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into the political history of the medieval period.

 The monuments throw light on the socio-cultural as well as religious

leanings of the rulers of the medieval times.

 Similarly the numismatic sources of the medieval era reveal much

about the finance and trade activities along with the prosperity level
of the regional kingdoms.

9.7 FURTHER READING

1) Chattopadhyaya, D.P. (2011). History of Science, Philosophy

and Culture in Indian Civilization in Vol III, Part I, Economic History
of Medieval India, 1200-1500. Delhi, India: Pearson Longman.

2) Singh, Vipul (2009). Interpreting Medieval India Vol. I. Early Medieval

Delhi Sultanate and Regions (circa 750-1550). New Delhi, India:
MacMillan.

3) Maiti, Provatansu and Kumar Saha, Prabhat, (2000). Medieval India

(1206 A.D.-1707 A.D.). Calcutta, India: Sreedhar Publishers.

4) Salma Ahmed, Farooqui, (2011). A Comprehensive History of

Medieval India: From the twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Delhi,
India: Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

9.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS

Answers to the Q No. 1: Al-Beruni

Answers to the Q No. 2: Ziauddin Barani

Answers to the Q No. 3: Nizam Shahi dynasty of Ahmednagar

Answers to theQ No.4: Despite the prohibition imposed by Islam on

displaying animals or human beings, Akbar and
Jahangir struck coins with their portraits on them.

Answers to the Q No. 5: Alaudin Khilji

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Answers to the Q No. 6: In the coins issued by the Bengal Sultans

Answers to the Q No. 7: Pandita Yogisvara

Answers to the Q No. 8: Khanaqah-i Mu'alla

9.9 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) Very Short Questions (answer within 50 words):

Q.1. Name the author of Kitab-ur-Rehla?

Q.2. Who minted the first rupee and mention its value?

Q.3. Name the source that throws light on the struggle between Prithvi
Raja III and Muhammad Ghuri?

Q.4. What is the special characteristic of the tomb of Zain-al-Abidin's

mother?

(B) Short Questions (answer within 150 words):

Q.1. Which script was used in their coins by the Vijayangara rulers?

Q.2. What does the "Tarikh-i-Badauni" critique?

Q.3. Name a literary source on the regional history of the Sultani period?

(C) Long Questions (answer within 300-500 words):

Q.1. Describe the literary sources of medieval India and their importance
for the historians.

Q.2. Discuss the significance of the numismatic sources in reconstructing

history with reference to the history of Medieval India.

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