Unit 5: Global Environmental Issues and Policies

1. Climate Change

Climate change refers to long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other aspects of
the Earth's climate system. It differs from weather, which describes short-term atmospheric conditions. Climate
can vary by season and geography, but when these patterns shift consistently over decades, it signals climate
change. This phenomenon poses serious threats to ecosystems, agriculture, water resources, and human health.

Natural causes include volcanic eruptions, which emit carbon dioxide and ash that trap heat; changes in Earth’s
orbit and tilt (Milankovitch cycles); solar fluctuations; and ocean current alterations such as the Atlantic
Conveyor Belt. Anthropogenic causes, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and industrial activities, have led to
a significant rise in greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. These gases trap
solar heat, causing global warming. Since the Industrial Revolution, CO2 has increased by 40% and methane
by 150%.

Flowchart: Milankovitch Cycles

●​ Eccentricity (100,000 years): Shape of Earth's orbit changes from circular to elliptical, affecting the
amount of solar energy received.
●​ Axial Tilt (41,000 years): Earth's tilt changes between 21.5° to 24.5°, influencing seasonal contrast.
●​ Precession (23,000 years): The wobble in Earth's rotation affects the timing of seasons.

Likely Exam Question: Explain the difference between weather and climate. What are the natural and human
causes of climate change?

2. Global Warming

Global warming is the rise in the Earth’s average surface temperature due to the accumulation of greenhouse
gases (GHGs) like CO2, CH4, and N2O. These gases absorb and retain heat in the atmosphere, a process called
the greenhouse effect. CO2, mainly from fossil fuel combustion, is the leading contributor, followed by
methane from rice fields and landfills, and nitrous oxide from sewage and fertilizers. CFCs and HFCs used in
cooling devices also contribute significantly.

The longevity of these gases is worrying—N2O can stay in the atmosphere for over 100 years. The U.S., China,
and the EU are the top GHG emitters, while sectors like electricity generation, transport, and agriculture are
major contributors. The IPCC predicts that at the current rate, temperatures may rise by 1.5°C by 2030–2052,
impacting ecosystems and human life.

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Likely Exam Question: What are the sources and consequences of global warming? Which greenhouse gases
have the highest global warming potential?

3. Impact of Climate Change

Climate change affects natural systems and human societies alike. Melting glaciers and polar ice caps lead to
sea-level rise, which can submerge low-lying island nations like the Maldives. Biodiversity loss is another
major concern, especially for species like snow leopards, polar bears, and Himalayan yaks that are highly
sensitive to temperature changes.

Agricultural patterns are shifting due to changes in rainfall and temperature. Pests and invasive species are
spreading, decreasing soil fertility. Human health is impacted by the spread of vector-borne diseases like
malaria and dengue. Economically, it causes job loss, crop failure, and damages infrastructure.

Likely Exam Question: Discuss the environmental, economic, and social impacts of climate change.

4. Ozone Layer Depletion

The ozone layer in the stratosphere protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
However, chemicals like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and methyl bromide break down ozone
molecules. The process is worsened by polar stratospheric clouds formed in Antarctica, where sunlight triggers
chemical reactions that destroy ozone.

This depletion causes skin cancer, cataracts, and immune disorders in humans and damages crops and aquatic
ecosystems. In response, the Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 to phase out ozone-depleting substances.
It’s one of the most successful international agreements, with ozone recovery expected by the mid-21st century.

Likely Exam Question: How do CFCs deplete the ozone layer? What global policy measures have been taken
to address this issue?

5. Acid Rain

Acid rain occurs when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) react with atmospheric moisture to
form sulfuric and nitric acid. With a pH below 5.6, this rain damages historical monuments like the Taj Mahal
and harms aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

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It leads to soil acidification, loss of nutrients, plant damage, and the death of aquatic organisms. India has
reported acid rain in Delhi, Mumbai, and Agra. Measures include reducing SO2 and NOx emissions through
cleaner fuels and environmental regulations.

Likely Exam Question: Define acid rain. What are its causes and impacts on monuments and ecosystems?

6. International Agreements and Summits

International agreements are essential for coordinated action on environmental protection. Some of the major
global efforts include:

●​ Stockholm Conference (1972): First major global gathering on environmental issues. Led to the
creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
●​ Earth Summit (1992, Rio de Janeiro): A historic summit where 178 countries participated. Resulted
in:
○​ Rio Declaration: 27 principles guiding sustainable development.
○​ Agenda 21: A comprehensive action plan for environmental protection at all levels.
○​ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Legally binding treaty for conservation, sustainable use,
and equitable benefit sharing of biodiversity.
○​ UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): Laid the foundation for international
climate negotiations.
●​ Kyoto Protocol (1997): Under UNFCCC, it set legally binding targets for developed countries to
reduce GHG emissions. Operational from 2008–2012. Emphasized "common but differentiated
responsibilities."
●​ Paris Agreement (2016): Aimed to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C, ideally 1.5°C,
above pre-industrial levels. Unlike Kyoto, it includes both developed and developing nations with flexible
nationally determined contributions (NDCs).
●​ Montreal Protocol (1987): A highly successful agreement to phase out ozone-depleting substances
(CFCs, HCFCs). Its Kigali Amendment (2016) targets HFCs, which are potent greenhouse gases.
●​ Ramsar Convention (1971): Provides a framework for conservation and wise use of wetlands. India
has designated 42 wetlands as Ramsar sites.
●​ CITES (1975): Controls international trade of endangered species. Categorizes species under
Appendices I, II, and III based on the level of protection.
●​ Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC, 1997): Prohibits development and use of chemical weapons.

These treaties reflect global consensus on environmental issues and are supported by mechanisms for financial
assistance, technology transfer, and capacity-building.

Likely Exam Question: Discuss major international environmental agreements. How do the Kyoto Protocol
and Paris Agreement differ in their approach?

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7. Environmental Policies in India

●​ NAPCC (2008): India’s plan to combat climate change through 8 missions:

○​ National Solar Mission: Promotes affordable solar energy, local manufacturing, and decentralized
access.
○​ National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: Encourages cleaner fuels, energy-saving
technologies, and market-based mechanisms.
○​ National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: Focuses on energy-efficient buildings, waste management,
and public transport improvement.
○​ National Water Mission: Aims for water conservation, reduced wastage, and equitable water
distribution through better policies.
○​ National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: Protects fragile ecosystems, biodiversity,
and glaciers.
○​ National Mission for A Green India: Revives degraded forests, improves forest cover, and encourages
joint forest management.
○​ National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: Develops climate-resilient crops, promotes dryland
agriculture, and integrates traditional techniques.
○​ National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change: Builds research and data-sharing
capacity for climate policy and solutions.

Likely Exam Question: Describe any four missions under the NAPCC and their objectives.

8. Environmental Legislation in India

India has enacted several important environmental laws:

●​ Wildlife Protection Act (1972): Prohibits hunting of endangered species and sets up Wildlife Advisory
Boards. Includes six schedules, offering varying levels of protection. Introduced conservation projects like
Project Tiger (1973) and Project Crocodile (1974).
●​ Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1974): Defines water pollution and created the
CPCB and SPCBs to enforce standards, manage water quality, and prosecute offenders. Includes provisions for
classifying water bodies into A–E based on usability.
●​ Forest (Conservation) Act (1980): Prevents diversion of forest land for non-forest use without Central
Government approval. Encourages sustainable use, conservation, and environmental impact assessment for
large-scale projects.
●​ Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981): Regulates emissions from industries and
vehicles. Enables SPCBs to declare air pollution control zones, inspect units, and take legal action.

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●​ Environment (Protection) Act (1986): An umbrella act that empowers the central government to
coordinate activities under previous laws. Includes several rules: Noise Pollution Rule (2000), E-Waste Rule
(2011), Biomedical Waste Rule (1998), etc.

Likely Exam Question: What are the major provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act and the Water Act?

9. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), 2006

EIA is a tool to predict environmental effects of a proposed project before it is approved. It includes assessment
of impacts, stakeholder input, alternatives, and mitigation strategies.

Projects are categorized as Schedule I (mandatory EIA) and Schedule II (screening required). It helps in
sustainable planning and reducing harm.

Likely Exam Question: What is EIA? Explain its significance in environmental decision-making.

10. Forest Rights Act (2006)

This Act recognizes the rights of Scheduled Tribes and traditional forest dwellers to inhabit and use forest land.
It includes rights to forest produce, community conservation, and conversion of forest villages to revenue
villages.

It enables inclusive development and empowers communities to manage forest resources sustainably.

Likely Exam Question: How does the Forest Rights Act of 2006 support tribal communities?

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 Unit 6: Biodiversity (EVS Notes)

1. What is Biodiversity?

Biodiversity refers to the wide variety of living organisms on Earth, including plants, animals,
fungi, and microorganisms, and the ecosystems they form. The term "biodiversity" was coined by
Walter G. Rosen in 1985, evolving from the term “biological diversity” introduced by Lovejoy in
1980. It encompasses all levels of biological organization, from genes to species to ecosystems.
Biodiversity can be found in every part of the Earth, from rainforests to deserts to oceans. It plays
a vital role in maintaining ecological balance and supporting life systems on the planet.

Likely Exam Questions:

●​ What is biodiversity? Who coined the term?

●​ Explain biodiversity with reference to biological organization.

2. Levels of Biodiversity

a. Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity is the variation in genes among individuals of the same species. This type of
diversity allows species to adapt to changing environments and resist diseases. For instance,
humans have diverse appearances and traits based on genetic variations. Similarly, different
varieties of rice and mango have emerged due to genetic diversity. These differences are caused
by mutations, genetic recombination during sexual reproduction, and other natural processes.

b. Species Diversity

Species diversity means the number of different species in a specific area and how evenly
individuals are distributed among those species. It has two parts—species richness (the total
number of species) and species evenness (how equally individuals are spread across species). For
example, two communities may each have five species, but if one community has a majority of
individuals from one species and the other has equal numbers, the second is more evenly diverse.

c. Ecosystem Diversity

Ecosystem diversity is the variety of habitats, communities, and ecological processes within the
biosphere. It includes different ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, deserts, lakes, and oceans.

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 A forest, for instance, has more ecological variety than a wheat field because it contains multiple
species, food chains, and ecological roles. Ecosystems can be natural (like forests) or artificial
(like aquariums or agricultural fields). Natural ecosystems are self-sustaining, whereas artificial
ones need human maintenance.

Likely Exam Questions:

●​ Differentiate between genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.

●​ What is species evenness? Explain with an example.

3. Biogeographic Zones of India

India is divided into ten biogeographic zones, each characterized by unique topography, climate,
flora, and fauna. These zones help in understanding the distribution of biodiversity and form the
basis for conservation planning.

1.​ Trans-Himalaya: This zone lies beyond the main Himalayan range in a rain-shadow
area. It includes Ladakh and parts of Himachal Pradesh. The region is dry, cold, and
high-altitude, with minimal vegetation like alpine steppes. Wildlife includes snow
leopards, wild yaks, Tibetan wolves, and wild sheep and goats. It is known for its harsh
winters and scanty rainfall.
2.​ Himalaya: Spread across northern India, this region has high biodiversity due to varying
altitudes and climates. It is divided into western, central, and eastern Himalayas.
Vegetation ranges from tropical forests to alpine meadows. It hosts species like musk
deer, Himalayan black bear, red panda, and monals. Rainfall is highest in the eastern
Himalayas.
3.​ Indian Desert: Found in Rajasthan and Gujarat, this zone includes the Thar Desert and
the Rann of Kutch. It has extreme temperatures, low rainfall, and sandy soil. Vegetation
includes thorny bushes and grasses. Fauna includes the Great Indian Bustard, desert fox,
chinkara, and blackbuck. The Rann is famous for flamingos and the endangered Asiatic
wild ass.
4.​ Semi-Arid: Located in parts of Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and Rajasthan, this region has
grasslands and thorn forests. Rainfall is moderate and vegetation is sparse. Common
animals include nilgai, blackbuck, jackal, and wolf. It serves as a transitional zone
between the desert and more humid regions.
5.​ Western Ghats: Running parallel to the western coast, this region is a biodiversity
hotspot and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It receives heavy rainfall and supports
tropical evergreen forests. Many species here are endemic, such as the lion-tailed

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 macaque, Nilgiri tahr, and Malabar civet. It is rich in medicinal plants and wild relatives
of crops.
6.​ Deccan Peninsula: The largest biogeographic zone covering central and southern India.
It consists of plateau regions with deciduous and scrub forests. Major rivers include
Godavari and Krishna. Fauna includes tigers, elephants, leopards, gaur, and wild boar.
Vegetation varies from dry to moist deciduous forests.
7.​ Gangetic Plains: These are fertile plains of northern India formed by the Ganga and its
tributaries. The region supports dense agriculture and high population. Vegetation is
mainly agricultural crops with remnants of sal forests. Fauna includes nilgai, blackbuck,
gharial, and chital, though wildlife is declining due to human activity.
8.​ Coastal Zones: India’s coastline stretches over 7500 km. It includes sandy beaches,
mangroves, and estuaries. The Sundarbans mangroves are famous for the Royal Bengal
Tiger. Fauna includes dolphins, crocodiles, and sea turtles. Flora includes coconut,
mangroves, and coral reefs.
9.​ North-East India: This region has the richest biodiversity in India. It is home to rare
orchids, rhododendrons, and bamboos. It includes states like Assam, Manipur, and
Meghalaya. Endemic animals include pygmy hog, hispid hare, and golden langur. The
region receives the highest rainfall in the country.
10.​Islands: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep
Islands in the Arabian Sea are known for their unique ecosystems. The Andamans have
tropical rainforests and coral reefs, while the Lakshadweep is mostly coral atolls.
Endemic species include the Nicobar pigeon, Andaman woodpecker, and dugong.

Likely Exam Questions:

●​ Describe the biodiversity of the Western Ghats.

●​ Why is the North-East considered a biodiversity hotspot?
●​ Name any five biogeographic zones and one species found in each.

4. IUCN Red List and Species Status

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is a global organization that
monitors the conservation status of species. It publishes the Red List of Threatened Species,
which serves as the world’s most comprehensive source of information on the global extinction
risk of animals, fungi, and plants. The list helps governments and researchers track biodiversity
loss and implement necessary conservation measures.

The Red List categorizes species into:

●​ Extinct (EX): No individuals are left. Example: Dodo, Passenger Pigeon.

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 ●​ Extinct in the Wild (EW): Survives only in captivity or cultivation. Example:
Scimitar-horned oryx.
●​ Critically Endangered (CR): Faces an extremely high risk of extinction. Example:
Indian vulture, Great Indian Bustard.
●​ Endangered (EN): Very high risk of extinction. Example: Asiatic lion, Bengal tiger.
●​ Vulnerable (VU): Likely to become endangered. Example: Snow leopard, one-horned
rhinoceros.
●​ Near Threatened (NT): Close to qualifying for threatened status. Example: Malabar
giant squirrel.
●​ Least Concern (LC): Widespread and abundant species. Example: House sparrow.

The Red List provides data on species population trends, distribution, threats, and conservation
actions. It is widely used for biodiversity monitoring and policy-making.

Likely Exam Questions:

●​ Explain the significance of the IUCN Red List.

●​ Differentiate between Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable species.
●​ Give two examples each of endangered and vulnerable species in India.

8. Important Case Studies

India has undertaken several major conservation projects to protect its rich biodiversity.

●​ Project Tiger (1973): Launched to protect the Royal Bengal Tiger, this was the first
major wildlife conservation project in India. Initiated in Jim Corbett National Park, it
used a core-buffer strategy. Core areas are free from human activity, while buffer zones
allow regulated use. As of 2019, India had 50 tiger reserves and about 2967 tigers. The
National Tiger Conservation Authority oversees the project.
●​ Project Elephant (1992): Aims to conserve elephants and their habitats. It includes
creation of elephant reserves, monitoring of illegal killings (MIKE), and securing
elephant corridors to reduce human-elephant conflict. India has 32 elephant reserves
under this project.
●​ Vulture Conservation Program (2006): Indian vulture populations declined drastically
due to diclofenac, a painkiller used in cattle. The drug caused kidney failure in vultures
feeding on dead cattle. The program banned diclofenac and established breeding centers
in Haryana, Assam, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh. Vulture Safe Zones were also
declared.
●​ Great Indian Bustard Recovery Program: Once found across 11 states, the Great
Indian Bustard is now critically endangered with fewer than 200 individuals left, mostly

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 in Rajasthan. Conservation efforts focus on breeding enclosures in Desert National Park
and protecting grasslands.
●​ Project Crocodile (1975): Launched to protect gharial, mugger, and saltwater crocodile
species. Habitat loss, poaching, and dam construction caused population decline. The
project includes breeding centers and sanctuaries like the National Chambal Sanctuary.
Gharials are now critically endangered.
●​ Silent Valley Movement (1978-1984): A people-led movement in Kerala against a dam
project that threatened the Silent Valley forest. Environmentalists like Madhav Gadgil
argued the dam would destroy endemic species and disrupt the water system. The project
was cancelled and Silent Valley was declared a national park.
●​ Save Western Ghats Movement (1986): A protest against environmental degradation
caused by dams and deforestation in the Western Ghats. Activists and local communities
walked the length of the Ghats to raise awareness. It helped highlight the ecological
importance of the region and influenced later policies.

Likely Exam Questions:

●​ Discuss the objectives and success of Project Tiger.

●​ What caused the decline of vultures in India? How was it addressed?
●​ Explain the importance of the Silent Valley Movement.
●​ Describe conservation measures for the Great Indian Bustard.

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 Unit 7: Human Communities and the Environment

1. Human Population Growth: Impacts on Environment, Human Health, and Welfare

The human population is increasing rapidly and has already crossed 7.6 billion globally. It is
expected to rise to over 9 billion by 2040. This increase puts pressure on Earth's natural resources
and contributes to environmental, economic, and social challenges. Key reasons for population
growth include better agriculture, health care, science, technology, and a lack of awareness about
family planning.

Impacts include:

●​ Deforestation for agriculture and housing.

●​ Biodiversity loss due to habitat destruction.
●​ Urbanization, which leads to poor sanitation and pollution.
●​ Industrialization, causing air and water pollution.
●​ Land degradation from overuse of chemicals and poor farming.
●​ Waste generation, adding to environmental problems.
●​ Freshwater scarcity due to overuse.
●​ Climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions.
●​ Health issues like respiratory diseases and reduced agricultural productivity.

Measures for population control:

●​ Enforce minimum marriage age.

●​ Promote education, especially for women.
●​ Create employment opportunities.
●​ Spread awareness of family planning.
●​ Offer government incentives for small families.

Likely Exam Question:

●​ What are the environmental impacts of rapid population growth?

●​ Suggest population control measures for India.

2. Carbon Footprint

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 A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide, emitted
directly or indirectly by human activities. It measures the environmental impact of daily choices
made by individuals, organizations, industries, or even nations. Key sources include electricity
use, transportation, industrial processes, food consumption (especially meat), and waste disposal.

For example, using air conditioners, driving personal vehicles, and consuming imported goods
increase one’s carbon footprint. Even choices like using plastic packaging or eating meat
regularly add to this footprint due to their energy-intensive production and transportation chains.

To reduce carbon footprint:

●​ Shift to public or electric transport.

●​ Use energy-efficient appliances and renewable energy sources like solar panels.
●​ Adopt sustainable food habits like eating locally grown, seasonal, and vegetarian foods.
●​ Reduce, reuse, and recycle products.
●​ Participate in carbon offset programs that support reforestation or renewable energy
projects.

Likely Exam Question:

●​ What is a carbon footprint? How can individuals reduce it?

3. Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R) of Project-Affected People

Large development projects like dams or highways often displace people. Resettlement aims to
ensure these people get compensation and support. The R&R plan includes socio-economic
surveys and is guided by national policies (2003 and 2007).

R&R includes:

●​ Compensation for lost land/homes.

●​ New housing and sanitation.
●​ Infrastructure like roads, water, schools.
●​ Economic support such as farming or small businesses.

Case Study: Tehri Dam, Uttarakhand

The Tehri Dam project in Uttarakhand is a major example of R&R in India. The dam created a
reservoir of 42 sq. km. that submerged Old Tehri Town and 24 villages entirely. An additional 88
villages were partially affected. The project displaced thousands of people who had to be
resettled.

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 The government classified affected families based on land loss. Families losing 50% or more of
their land were fully relocated, while others were partially affected. The rehabilitation plan was
divided into two categories:

●​ Urban Rehabilitation: For those relocated to New Tehri town, new houses and urban
infrastructure like schools, hospitals, roads, and markets were provided.
●​ Rural Rehabilitation: Rural oustees were given compensation in the form of land or
cash. Every family was also allotted 2 acres of developed irrigated land.

The total cost of R&R was Rs. 1,484 crore, nearly 18% of the total project cost. The displaced
communities were involved in site selection for new settlements, ensuring their social networks
were maintained.

Likely Exam Question:

●​ Describe the R&R measures taken in the Tehri Dam project.

4. Environmental Movements

Chipko Movement: Initiated in the 1970s in Uttarakhand, the Chipko Movement was a
grassroots effort by villagers, particularly women, to prevent deforestation. The protesters
embraced trees to prevent them from being cut. Leaders like Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sundarlal
Bahuguna played key roles. The movement promoted the idea that forests are vital for ecological
security and livelihoods, especially in mountainous regions. The slogan "Ecology is permanent
economy" summarized their philosophy.

Appiko Movement: Started in 1983 in Karnataka's Western Ghats, this movement drew
inspiration from Chipko and aimed to stop deforestation. Led by Pandurang Hegde, it used local
folk art forms, street plays, and marches to spread environmental awareness. Villagers actively
protested against the felling of trees in ecologically sensitive regions and demanded afforestation,
alternative energy, and forest rights.

Silent Valley Movement: In the 1970s, the Kerala government proposed a hydroelectric project
in the Silent Valley forest, a biodiversity hotspot. Environmentalists, including Romulus
Whitaker, Dr. Salim Ali, and Sugatha Kumari, opposed it. Their efforts, supported by the Kerala
Sasthra Sahithya Parishad (KSSP), led to national awareness and finally the cancellation of the
project. In 1984, Silent Valley was declared a national park, preserving one of India’s richest
tropical rainforests.

Bishnois of Rajasthan: The Bishnoi community, founded by Guru Jambheshwar in 1486, is

known for its strict environmental ethics. Their 29 guiding principles promote the protection of

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 animals and trees, particularly the Khejri tree. In 1730, 363 Bishnois sacrificed their lives in
Khejarli village to prevent tree felling by royal soldiers. Their eco-spiritual traditions continue
today, as they protect wildlife like blackbucks and gazelles around their villages.

Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA): Launched in 1985, NBA protested against the construction
of the Sardar Sarovar Dam on the Narmada River. The movement, led by Medha Patkar and
supported by Baba Amte, highlighted issues of displacement, lack of proper rehabilitation, and
environmental degradation. NBA used legal actions, peaceful protests, and awareness campaigns
to fight for the rights of affected tribal and rural communities. The movement gained national and
international attention.

Likely Exam Question:

●​ Write short notes on any two environmental movements in India.

5. Environmental Justice: National Green Tribunal (NGT)

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) was established in 2010 under the NGT Act for the effective
and speedy disposal of environmental cases. It aims to reduce the burden on regular courts while
ensuring justice in matters relating to environmental protection, conservation of forests, and other
natural resources.

Structure and Composition:

●​ Comprises a Chairperson, Judicial Members, and Expert Members.

●​ Members serve a term of five years and are not eligible for reappointment.
●​ The Chairperson is appointed by the Central Government in consultation with the Chief
Justice of India.
●​ The Tribunal sits in Delhi (principal bench), and other places like Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata,
and Chennai.

Jurisdiction and Powers:

●​ NGT deals with civil cases under seven major environmental laws such as the Water Act
(1974), Air Act (1981), Forest Conservation Act (1980), Environment Protection Act
(1986), and Biological Diversity Act (2002).
●​ It follows principles of natural justice, not the Civil Procedure Code.
●​ Applies the Polluter Pays, Precautionary, and Sustainable Development principles.
●​ Has both original and appellate jurisdiction.
●​ Can impose penalties including fines up to Rs. 10 crore and imprisonment up to 3 years.

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 Landmark Judgements:

1.​ POSCO Steel Project (2012): NGT suspended environmental clearance, protecting
forests and rights of tribal communities.
2.​ Almitra H. Patel vs. Union of India (2012): Banned open burning of waste. Set the
foundation for better solid waste management in India.
3.​ Uttarakhand Floods Case (2013): Held the Alaknanda Hydro Power Co. liable for
environmental damage and ordered compensation.
4.​ Diesel Vehicle Ban (2015): Banned diesel vehicles older than 10 years in Delhi-NCR to
control air pollution.
5.​ Art of Living Case (2017): Fined Rs. 5 crore for damage to the Yamuna floodplain due
to a cultural event.
6.​ Plastic Ban in Delhi (2017): Banned plastic bags less than 50 microns thick, citing
environmental and health hazards.

NGT is a strong pillar for ensuring environmental justice and has helped in creating
environmental jurisprudence in India.

Likely Exam Question:

●​ What is the NGT? Mention two important cases handled by it.

6. Environmental Philosophy and Cultural Practices

India has a long tradition of living in harmony with nature, seen in sacred groves, religious
festivals, and conservation practices. Examples:

●​ Sacred Groves: Forests protected due to religious beliefs. Found in Kerala, Karnataka,
Maharashtra.
●​ Sacred Plants/Animals: Peepal, Banyan, Khejri trees; Black Buck and snakes.
●​ Ancient Texts: Manusmriti mentions punishments for crimes against nature.

However, some practices like idol immersion and animal sacrifice harm the environment.

Likely Exam Question:

●​ Discuss the role of religious beliefs in environmental conservation.

7. Environmental Communication and Public Awareness

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Raising public awareness is essential to protect the environment. Effective communication uses
media like newsletters, videos, posters, workshops, and campaigns. School children and women
are key focus groups.

Case Studies:

1.​ CNG Vehicles in Delhi: In the 1990s, Delhi faced severe air pollution due to growing
vehicle use. In response, the Supreme Court ordered a shift of all public transport vehicles
to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) by March 31, 2001. This transition helped
significantly reduce pollutants like nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and particulate
matter. It was a key example of how legal intervention and clean technology can reduce
urban pollution. Delhi became the first city in the world to switch its entire public
transport fleet to CNG.
2.​ Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission): Launched on October 2, 2014, this
nationwide campaign aimed to eliminate open defecation and improve sanitation
infrastructure. It also aimed to bring about behavioural change in hygiene habits. Millions
of toilets were built in rural and urban India. The campaign emphasized cleanliness
drives, community participation, and media outreach. It was supported by celebrities,
students, and local leaders, making sanitation a public movement.
3.​ National Environment Awareness Campaign (NEAC): Started in 1986 by the Ministry
of Environment and Forests, this campaign is conducted annually to increase public
awareness and participation in environmental protection. Activities include seminars,
rallies, exhibitions, tree plantations, and clean-up campaigns. The campaign encourages
community-based solutions to local environmental problems and involves schools,
colleges, NGOs, and panchayats.
4.​ National Green Corps (NGC): This initiative, started in 2001-02, set up Eco-clubs in
schools to promote environmental education. Children are engaged through hands-on
activities like waste management, composting, nature camps, and quiz competitions.
NGC helps create a new generation of environmentally conscious citizens who influence
family and community practices.
5.​ Eco-club Programme (Delhi): Over 2000 eco-clubs have been established in Delhi’s
schools and colleges. These clubs receive funding to organize activities like tree
plantation, cleanliness drives, and plastic-free campaigns. Students participate in street
plays, nature trails, and biodiversity awareness events, strengthening the connection
between education and real-world environmental action. The Department of
Environment, Delhi Government, monitors and supports this initiative annually.

Likely Exam Question:

●​ Explain any two case studies of environmental communication and awareness in India.

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