Instructor Manual

Daft, The Leadership Experience, 8e, 9780357716304; Chapter 2: Traits, Behaviors,

and Relationships
Table of Contents
Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter 2
Chapter Objectives 3
Key Terms 3
What's New in This Chapter 4
Chapter Outline 5
Additional Resources 10

Purpose and Perspective of the Chapter

This chapter explains the importance of traits and behaviors in the development of
leadership theory and research. Some traits associated with effective leadership
include optimism, self-confidence, honesty, and integrity. Many personal traits and
abilities have been associated with successful leaders, but traits themselves are
not sufficient to guarantee effective leadership. Natural traits and behavior
patterns can be developed into strengths. It is important for leaders to recognize
their strengths and acknowledge the interdependence that is a key to effective
leadership.
Research suggests that different leader strengths might be better suited to
different types of leadership roles. The chapter describes three types of roles:
operational roles, collaborative roles, and advisory roles. Leaders can be more
effective when they are in positions that best match their natural tendencies.
The behavior approach explored autocratic versus democratic leadership,
consideration versus initiating structure, employee-centered versus job-centered
leadership, and concern for people versus concern for production. The theme of
people versus tasks runs through this research, suggesting these are fundamental
behaviors through which leaders meet followers’ needs. There has been some
disagreement in the research about whether a specific leader is either people- or
task-oriented or whether one can be both. Today, the consensus is that leaders can
achieve a “high-high” leadership style.
Another approach is the dyad between a leader and each follower. Followers have
different relationships with the leader, and the ability of the leader to develop a
positive relationship with each follower contributes to team performance. The LMX
theory states that high-quality relationships have a positive outcome for leaders,
followers, work units, and the organization. Leaders can attempt to build
individualized relationships with each person as a way to meet needs for both
consideration and structure.
The historical development of leadership theory presented in this chapter
introduces important ideas about leadership. Although certain personal traits and
abilities indicate a greater likelihood for success in a leadership role, they are
not in themselves sufficient to guarantee effective leadership. Behaviors are
equally significant. Therefore, the style of leadership demonstrated by an
individual greatly determines the outcome of the leadership endeavor. Often, a
combination of behavioral styles is most effective. To understand the effects of
leadership upon outcomes, the specific relationship behavior between a leader and
each follower is also an important consideration.
Another topic of special concern in today’s world is what traits and behaviors are
important for helping people remain physically, emotionally, and psychologically
healthy as well as productive during times of crisis. Leaders have a lot to deal
with during a crisis, and the emotional well-being of employees can sometimes get
lost among the tremendous variety and complexity of demands on leaders’ time.
Leaders can keep five points in mind during a crisis.
Chapter Objectives
The following objectives are addressed in this chapter:
02.01 Outline some personal traits and characteristics that are associated with
effective leaders.
02.02 Identify your own traits that you can transform into strengths and bring to a
leadership role.
02.03 Recognize autocratic versus democratic leadership behavior and the
distinction between task-oriented and people-oriented leader behavior.
02.04 Explain how the theory of individualized leadership has broadened the
understanding of relationships between leaders and followers.
02.05 Describe some key leader traits for handling a crisis.
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Key Terms
Traits: the distinguishing personal characteristics of a leader, such as
intelligence, honesty, self-confidence, and appearance.
Great Man approach: a leadership perspective that sought to identify the inherited
traits leaders possessed that distinguished them from people who were not leaders.
Optimism: a tendency to see the positive side of things and expect that things will
turn out well.
Optimism bias: the tendency to underestimate the possibility of experiencing
negative events.
Self-confidence: assurance in one’s own judgments, decision making, ideas, and
capabilities.
Honesty: truthfulness and nondeception.
Integrity: the quality of being whole and integrated and acting in accordance with
solid ethical principles.
Strength: a natural talent or ability that has been supported and reinforced with
learned knowledge and skills.
Autocratic: a leader who tends to centralize authority and derive power from
position, control of rewards, and coercion.
Democratic: a leader who delegates authority to others, encourages participation,
relies on subordinates’ knowledge for completion of tasks, and depends on
subordinate respect for influence.
Consideration: the extent to which a leader is sensitive to subordinates, respects
their ideas and feelings, and establishes mutual trust.
Initiating structure: the extent to which a leader is task oriented and directs
subordinates’ work activities toward goal achievement.
Employee-centered: a leadership behavior that displays a focus on the human needs
of subordinates.
Job-centered: leadership behavior in which leaders direct activities toward
efficiency, cost-cutting, and scheduling, with an emphasis on goals and work
facilitation.
The Leadership Grid: a two-dimensional leadership model that describes major
leadership styles based on measuring both concern for people and concern for
production.
Individualized leadership: a theory based on the notion that a leader develops a
unique relationship with each subordinate or group member, which determines how the
leader behaves toward the member and how the member responds to the leader.
Vertical dyad linkage (VDL) model: a model of individualized leadership that argues
for the importance of the dyad formed by a leader with each member of the group.
Leader–member exchange (LMX): individualized leadership model that explores how
leader–member relationships develop over time and how the quality of exchange
relationships affects outcomes.
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What's New in This Chapter
The following elements are improvements in this chapter from the previous edition:
• New examples to support successful leadership traits.
• New focus on optimism and self-confidence.
• New examples on knowing your strengths and how leaders use strengths.
• New focus on leadership traits during a crisis.
• New Put It Into Practice sections.
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Chapter Outline
The following outline organizes activities (including any existing discussion
questions in PowerPoints or other supplements) and assessments by chapter (and
therefore by topic), so that you can see how the content relates to the topics
covered in the text.
I. The Trait Approach (2-1, PPT Slides 3-7)
Traits are the distinguishing personal characteristics of a leader, such as
intelligence, honesty, self-confidence, and appearance. The Great Man approach is a
leadership perspective that sought to identify the inherited traits leaders
possessed that distinguished them from people who were not leaders.
Trait research, as part of leadership studies, has been conducted since the 1940s.
Findings suggest that some traits are essential to effective leadership when other
factors are present. Exhibit 2.1 presents some of the traits and their respective
categories that have been identified through trait research over the years.
a. Optimism and Self-Confidence
Optimism is a tendency to see the positive side of things and expect that things
will turn out well. Numerous surveys indicate that optimism is the single
characteristic most common to top executives. Leader over-optimism, however, can
have a downside. Optimism bias is the tendency for people to underestimate the
possibility of experiencing negative events. This bias can cause inaccurate
strategic projections of costs, demand, and other aspects of planning.
Self-confidence is assurance in one’s own judgments, decision-making, ideas, and
capabilities. Self-confidence is related to self-efficacy, which refers to a
person’s strong belief that he or she can successfully accomplish a specific task
or outcome. Active leaders need self-confidence and optimism to face challenges.
b. Honesty and Integrity
Honesty is truthfulness and nondeception. Integrity is the quality of being whole,
integrated, and acting in accordance with solid ethical principles. Honesty and
integrity are the foundation of trust between leaders and followers.
c. Humility
Humility means being unpretentious and modest rather than arrogant and prideful.
Leader humility incorporates five essential characteristics.
1. A clear and accurate self-awareness.
2. An appreciation of others and recognition of the contributions of others.
3. An openness to learning from others.
4. A modest ego and low self-focus.
5. An orientation toward serving others.
d. Good and Bad Traits as perceived by Followers
Discussion Question #1: Why is it important for leaders to know their strengths? Do
you think leaders should spend equal time learning about their weak points? Why?
Discussion Question #2: Suggest some personal traits of leaders you have known.
What traits do you believe are most valuable? Why?
II. Know Your Strengths (2-2, PPT Slides 7-12)
The best leaders recognize their strengths and weaknesses. They use their skills
and work with others who have the skills they lack. Interdependence is the key to
effective leadership.
a. What Are Strengths?
A strength is a natural talent or ability that has been supported and reinforced
with learned knowledge and skills. Talents are innate traits that can be turned
into strengths with learning and practice.
b. How Leaders Can Use Strengths
Discussion Question #10: Pick three traits from the list in Exhibit 2.1 that you
think would be most valuable for a leader in elementary school. Pick three that you
think would be most valuable for a leader in a scientific research organization.
Explain your choices.
III. Behavior Approaches (2-3, PPT Slides 13-23)
Behaviors, unlike traits, can be learned. Several behavior approaches are used by
leaders.
a. Autocratic versus Democratic Behaviors
Autocratic leaders tend to centralize authority and derive power from position,
control of rewards, and coercion. Democratic leaders delegate authority to others,
encourage participation, rely on subordinates’ knowledge for completion of tasks,
and depend on subordinates’ respect for influence.
Leadership behavior exists on a continuum reflecting autocratic (boss-centered),
democratic (subordinate-centered), and a mix of the two styles, as shown in Exhibit
2.3.

Discussion Question #4: What is the difference between trait theories and
behavioral theories of leadership?
Discussion Question #8: Why would subordinates under a democratic leader perform
better in the leader’s
b. Ohio State Studies
One early series of studies on leadership behavior was conducted at The Ohio State
University. The analysis of ratings from the studies resulted in two wide-ranging
categories of leader behavior:
• Consideration is the extent to which a leader is sensitive to subordinates,
respects their ideas and feelings, and establishes mutual trust. Showing
appreciation, listening carefully to problems, and seeking input from subordinates
regarding important decisions are all examples of consideration behaviors.
• Initiating structure is the extent to which a leader is task oriented and
directs subordinates’ work activities toward goal achievement. This type of leader
behavior includes directing tasks, getting people to work hard, planning, providing
explicit schedules for work activities, and ruling with an iron hand.
Although many leaders fall along a continuum that includes consideration and
initiating structure behaviors, these behavior categories are independent of one
another. In other words, a leader can display a high degree of both behavior types
or a low degree of both behavior types. Research indicates that all four types of
leader style combinations can be effective.
Discussion Question #5: Would you feel most comfortable using a “consideration” or
an “initiating-structure” leadership style? Discuss the reasons for your answer?
c. University of Michigan Studies
These studies directly compared the behavior of effective and ineffective
supervisors. The effectiveness of leaders was determined by productivity of the
subordinate group. Two types of leadership behavior were established.
• Employee-centered is a leadership behavior that displays a focus on the human
needs of subordinates.
• Job-centered is leadership behavior in which leaders direct activities toward
efficiency, cost-cutting, and scheduling, with an emphasis on goals and work
facilitation.
Leaders can be employee-centered or job-centered, but not both. Performance was
also influenced by other factors related to the situation.
d. The Leadership Grid
The Leadership Grid, a two-dimensional leadership model that describes major
leadership styles based on measuring both concern for people and concern for
production, is shown in Exhibit 2.4.
Five leadership styles are shown.
• Team management (9,9): Members work together to accomplish tasks. Considered
the best style.
• Country club management (1,9): Emphasis is on people rather than work
outputs.
• Authority-compliance management (9,1): Efficiency in operations is the
dominant orientation.
• Middle-of-the-road management (5,5): A moderate amount of concern is shown
for both people and production.
• Impoverished management (1,1): Leaders exert little effort.
e. Theories of a “High-High” Leader
The research into the behavior approach culminated in two predominate types of
leadership behaviors—people-oriented and task-oriented. The behavior types are
shown in Exhibit 2.5.
The findings raise three questions:
• Are these two dimensions the most important behaviors of leadership?
• How can people orientation and task orientation exist together in the same
leader?
• Can people change themselves into leaders high on people- or task-
orientation?
IV. Individualized Leadership (2-4, PPT Slides 24-7)
Individualized leadership is a theory based on the notion that a leader develops a
unique relationship with each subordinate or group member, which determines how the
leader behaves toward the member and how the member responds to the leader. In this
view, leadership is a series of dyads, or a series of two-person interactions, that
focus on what each party gives to and receives from the other. Exhibit 2.6
illustrates the development of related research.
Three stages are identified:
• Vertical dyad linkage
• Leader-member exchange
• Partnership building
a. Vertical Dyad Linkage Model
The vertical dyad linkage (VDL) model of individualized leadership argues for the
importance of the dyad formed by a leader with each member of the group. Exhibit
2.7 describes the interactions a leader has with in-group members versus
interactions with out-group members.
Discussion Question #6: The vertical dyad linkage model suggests that followers
respond individually to the leader. If this is so, what advice would you give
leaders about displaying people-oriented versus task-oriented behavior?
b. Leader-Member Exchange
Leader-member exchange (LMX) is an individualized leadership model that explores
how leader-member relationships develop over time and how the quality of exchange
relationships affects outcomes. Studies have found that the quality of the LMX
relationship is substantially higher for in-group members.
c. Partnership Building
Studies have shown that leaders can develop positive relationships with numerous
subordinates.
Discussion Question #7: Does it make sense to you that a leader should develop an
individualized relationship with each follower? Explain advantages and
disadvantages to this approach.
V. Leadership Traits During a Crisis (2-5, PPT Slides 31-32)
Leaders have much to deal with during a crisis, and the emotional well-being of
employees can sometimes get lost among the tremendous variety and complexity of
demands on leaders’ time. Leaders can keep five points in mind during a crisis.
1. Communicate.
2. Project calm.
3. Show compassion and concern.
4. Reduce uncertainty.
5. Build trust.
Discussion Question #9: Which leader trait or behavior do you think is most
important for handling a crisis such as a pandemic? Explain
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Additional Resources
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60. See A. J. Kinicki and R. P. Vecchio, “Influences on the Quality of
Supervisor-Subordinate Relations: The Role of Time Pressure, Organizational
Commitment, and Locus of Control,” Journal of Organizational Behavior (January
1994), pp. 75–82; R. C. Liden, S. J. Wayne, and D. Stilwell, “A Longitudinal Study
on the Early Development of Leader-Member Exchanges,” Journal of Applied Psychology
(August 1993), pp. 662–674; Yammarino and Dansereau, “Individualized Leadership”;
Jean-François Manzoni and Jean-Louis Barsoux, “The Set-Up-to-Fail Syndrome,”
Harvard Business Review 76 (March–April 1998), pp. 101–113; Yukl et al., “Influence
of Leader Behaviors on the Leader-Member Exchange Relationship”; and O’Donnell et
al., “Leader Behavior and LMX: A Constructive Replication.”
61. W. E. McClane, “Implications of Member Role Differentiation: Analysis of a
Key Concept in the LMX Model of Leadership,” Group and Organization Studies 16
(1991), pp. 102–113; and Gary Yukl, Leadership in Organizations, 2nd ed. (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989).
62. Manzoni and Barsoux, “The Set-Up-to-Fail Syndrome.”
63. Sara Castellanos, “How CIOs in 2020 Rallied Their Companies Around Remote
Work,” The Wall Street Journal (December 18, 2020), [Link]/articles/how-cios-
in-2020-rallied-their-companies-around-remote-work-11608294600 (accessed February
26, 2021).
64. Kristin Stoller, “Mercury Systems, Zoom and DocuSign CEOs Are Among the
Highest-Rated Business Leaders During the Covid-19 Crisis,” Forbes (September 16,
2020), [Link]/sites/kristinstoller/2020/09/16/mercury-systems-zoom-and-
docusign-ceos-are-among-the-highest-rated-business-leaders-during-the-covid-19-
crisis/?sh=7190e42441f4 (accessed February 18, 2021).
65. Rachel King, “Only a Fraction of Workers Say Their Employers Are Supporting
Their Well-Being During the Pandemic,” Fortune (February 1, 2021),
[Link]
2021/02/01/lululemon-global-wellbeing-report-index/ (accessed February 17, 2021).
66. These points are based in part on Ryne Sherman, Chase Borden, and Kimberly
Nei, “What It Takes to Lead Through Organizational Crisis,” Hogan Assessments
(March 20, 2020), [Link]/what-it-takes-to-lead-through-
organizational-crisis/ (accessed February 18, 2021); Larry Clark, “Leadership Will
Never Be the Same Post-Covid,” Leadership Excellence (December 2020), pp. 14-16;
and Naz Beheshti, “Steady Hand in a Crisis: What Business Leaders Can Learn from
New York Governor Andrew Cuomo,” Forbes (April 9, 2020),
[Link]/sites/nazbeheshti /2020/
04/09/steady-hand-in-a-crisis-what-business-leaders-can-learn-from-new-york-
governor-andrew-cuomo/?sh=6f62f2c33037 (accessed February 18, 2021).
67. Chip Barnett, “Public Finance Vet Shank Stresses Communication, Empathy in
Crisis,” Bond Buyer (June 5, 2020), [Link]/news/public-finance-vet-
suzanne-shank-leads-through-example-empathy-amid-the-crisis#:~:text=Public
%20finance%20vet%20Shank%20stresses%20 communication%2C%20empathy
%20in%20crisis&text=As%20Suzanne%20Shank%20sees%20it, dramatically%
20in%20times%20of%20crisis.&text=%E2%80%9CI%27ve%20tried%20to%20 lead,pandemic%2C
%E2%80%9D%20Suzanne%20Shank%20says (accessed February 18, 2021).
68. Quoted in Stoller, “Mercury Systems, Zoom and DocuSign CEOs Are Among the
Highest-Rated Business Leaders During the Covid-19 Crisis.”
69. Sherman, et al., “What It Takes to Lead Through Organizational Crisis.”
70. Stoller, “Mercury Systems, Zoom and DocuSign CEOs Are Among the Highest-Rated
Business Leaders During the Covid-19 Crisis.”
71. Adam Bryant, “Leaders Are Building New Muscles to Deal with the Pandemic,”
Strategy + Business” (June 17, 2020), [Link]/blog/Leaders-are-
building-new-muscles-to-deal-with-the-pandemic?gko=7a303 (accessed February 9,
2021).
72. Castellanos, “How CIOs in 2020 Rallied Their Companies Around Remote Work.”
73. McKinsey & Company article cited in Beheshti, “Steady Hand in a Crisis: What
Business Leaders Can Learn from New York Governor Andrew Cuomo.”
74. David McGuire, James E. A. Cunningham, Kae Reynolds, and Gerri Matthews-
Smith, “Beating the Virus: An Examination of the Crisis Communication Approach
Taken by New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern During the Covid-19 Pandemic,”
Human Resource Development International 23, no. 4 (2020), pp. 361–379.
75. Reprinted with permission from Gary Yukl, Leadership in Organizations, 4th
ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998), p. 66.
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