COSETS

2
In this chapter, we shall discuss the concepts of right and left cosets of any subgroup and
apply the theory of cosets toprove some of the important results such as Lagrange's theorem of
Group Theory. In fact, the concept of cosets leads us to study the special class of groups namely
Normal subgroups and Quotient groups which we will discuss later in this chapter.
2.1. COSETS

Let G be a group and H be any subgroup of G. For any a e G, the set Ha = (ha :he H) is
called right coset of Hin Ggenerated by a.
Similarly, the set aH=(ah :h e H) is called left coset of Hin Ggenerated by a.
Obviously, Ha and aH are both subsets of G. H is itself a right and left coset as
eH= H= He, where e is an identity of G.
Since H is a subgroup of G, therefore ee H ’ ea e Ha and hence right coset is a non
empty set. Also e e H » ae e aH and hence left coset is also a non-empty set.
IfG is an abelian group and H is a subgroup of G, then ah = ha for all h eH.
Hence aH= Ha
Le., Every left coset is equal to the corresponding right coset. If the binary composition in Gis
aaauve, then the right coset generated by ais H +t a = h + a, h e H) and the left coset
generated by a isa+ H= la + h, he H).

Remark,
osets are not necessarily subgroups of G. These are special type of non-empty sets that
are sometimes called residue classes modulo the subgroup.
Example. Pind the rightcosetsofthesubgroup (1, -) ofthe group(l, -l, i,- ilw.r.t.
usual multiplication.
Solution. Let G=(0, - 1,i,-il be agroup w..r.t. usual multiplication
and
H = |1, - 1) be a subgroup of G.
2.2
GROUPs AND RINO

The right cosets of H in G are

H) =(1(1), -1(1)) = (1, 1) = H
H-1) = (1( - 1),- 1( - )) ={-1, 1) = H
H) =(1i), 1)} = i, )
H() = (1(-i), 1(-)) =(-i,i)
Thus we have only two distinct right cosets of
H in G.

2.2. SOME THEOREMS ON COSETS

Theorem 1. and h e H, then Hh =H= hH.

IfHis any subgroup of G
element of H:
Proof. Let h' be any arbitrary element of Hsuch that h'h is an arbitrary
h'he Hh

Now H is a subgroup of G, therefore h', he H > h'h e H

Thus, we have h'h e Hh h'h e H

Hà c H
Conversely, let h, be any element of H, i.e., h, e H
h,heH
(::he H

h,h-'h e HA h, e Hh
Thus h, eH h, e Hh
...2
HcHh
From (1) and (2), we have Hh - H

Similarly, we can prove that hH = H.

Theorem 2. Any tuo right (lef) cosets of a subgroup are either disjoint o
identical
M.D.U. 2014: K.U.2013
Proof. Suppose H isa subgroup of group G and let Ha and Hbbe two right cosets u
in G.

Case I. Ha and Hb are not disjoint sets :

Let d be a common element of Ha and Hb.
Now de Ha d =h, a, where h, e H
C O S E T S
2.3

de Hb d =h, b, where h,e H

and

h,a = hb
h, 'h,a =hh,b
ea = h,h, b
a =h,'h, b
Ha = Hh,-h, b= Hb [As h, h, e H,:. Hh,hy =H]
Thus if Ha and Hb are not disjoint sets, then they are identical.
Case II. Ha and Hb are disjoint sets :
In this case, the required result is true.
From the above two cases, we have either Ha o Hb = or Ha = Hb
Similarly,we can prove that either bHnaH=¢ or bH aH.

Theorem3. IfH is a subgroup of G, then G is equal to the union ofall right cosets
ofH in G.

Proof. Let S be the union of all right cosets of H in G.

[K.U. 2017]
S= Hu Ha vHbUHc ..., where a, b, c are elements of G.
Let x be any element of S
either xe H or x e Ha or x E Hb or xe Hc or
xe G (::Each element of any right coset of Hin Gis an element of G]
Thus we have for all xe
S
Hence SeG ...(1)
Conversely, let a be any element of G
a e Ha
(:Hisasubgroup of GI
a e S
Thus we have foall ae G
aeS
Hence GeS ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
0r
G=S
G= HU Ha vHb u HcU.....
Similarly, we can prove that Gis also equal to the union of all left cosets of HinG.
 2.4
GROUPS AND RINO
Theorem 4. If His asubgroup of G, then prove that there is a one to one
correspondence between any two right cosets ofH in G.
IK.U. 2014; M.D.U. 2013
Proof. Let Ha and Hb be any two right cosets of H in G, where a, b eG
Let f: Ha ’ Hb such thatf (ha) = hb for all he H
fis well defined : For h,, h, e H, we take

h, a =h, a
h,b= h,b ’ fh, a) =fh,a)
Thus, the funtion fis well defined.

fisone-one : Consider f(h,a) =f (hza), where h,,hy e H

h, b =h,b h, =h, » h, a=h,a
Thus, the function fis one-one.
fis onto : Let hb be any arbitrary element of Hb
hb e Hb ’he H ha e Ha

Thus for each hb e Hb, we can find ha e Ha such thatf(ha) = hb and therefore the function
fis onto. Hence fis one to one correspondence between Ha and Hb.
Theorem 5. IfH is a subgroup of G, then there is a one to one correspondence
between the set ofleft cosets ofH in Gand the set of rightcosets ofH in G.
Proof. Let fbe a function from the set of left cosets of H in G to the set of right cosets a
H inG such that
f(aH) = Ha-' for alla e G.
Here aH is left coset and Ha is right coset of H in G.
We have to prove that fisone-one and onto.
fis welldefined : Let aH and bH be any two elements of domain offsuch that for a, bev
aH = bH a'aH =a'bH
H =abH a-'be H
Ha b= H Ha-1 = Hb-1
flaH) =f(bH)
fis well defined.
( H o m o m o r p h i s n

Definitions / concepts used in theorem 4 and 5 will be discussed in Chapter 3

and Automorphisms).
 2.5
COSET8

fis one-one: Let flaH) =f (bH), where a, b e G

Ha1 = Hb- 1 (By (1))
Ha'b Hb-'b = H
albe H
a-lbH =H ’ abH = aH ’ bH =aH
bH
Thus, f(aH) =f(6H) ’ aH-
Hence, the function fis one-one.
fis onto : Let Hc be any right coset of H in G.
Then ceG ’ c-le G

.. C-1 H is left coset of Hin G such that flc-H) =Hc-ll= Hc

Thus c-1H is a pre-image of Hc. Hence, the function fis onto.

SOLVED EAMPLES

Example 1. Let Gbe the additive group of in tegers and H be the subgroup ofG
obtained on multiplying each element ofG by 3. Find cosets of H.
Solution. Here G= (......, - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, .... )
H=(...., -9, - 6, - 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, ..... .
For 0e G, H+0= {...,-9, - 6, -3, 0, 3, 6, 9, .....
For 1e G, H+1= (.....,-8, -5, - 2, 1, 4, 7, 10, ..... 1
For 2 e G, H+2= (....,-7, 4, - 1, 2, 5, 8, 11, ..... .
....= H+0
For 3 e G, H+3= (..... -6, - 3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12,
H+1
For 4 eG, H+4= (... - 5, -2, 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, ......|=

Similarly, H+5= H+2,

H+6= H+3 = H +0,

H+7= H+ 4 = H+ 1.
Also H+(-1)= H +2

H+(- 2) = H+land so on.

right cosets ie., H+0, H+1, H +2.
Therefore, we have only three distinct
 GROUPS AND RINO

Ais these thrent cosets are isiont (having no common element).

G-H H- H-2) [By Theorem 3
As Gis ahea grup therefore any right coset of Hisequal to the corresponding les

Dapie 2LetGhe the groap ofall integers under usual addition and H=(5n :n en
Find the rigit cosets ofH in Ggenerated by 4, 1, 2 3,4 Also rerify that these cosets a
mataally dijont nd their uRion is G [KU. 2003
Solutioa Here G=-3,-2-10, 1 2, 3. ....
H = - 10, - 5.0. 5, 10,
H-0= -10, - 5, 0, 5, 10.
H-l=L-9. -416, 1l,
Fr 2eG H-2= (-8, -3, 2, 7, 12,
Fr 3 G H+3=(-7,-2.3, 8, 13.
Fur 4e G H-4= -6. -14,9, 14,
Fr 5eG. H-5=-5, 0, 5, 10, 15, ... = H + 0

Fr 6eG. H-6- ( - 4 , 1, 6, 11, 16. ....] = H + 1

Siariy. H+7-H +2,

H+8= H+3
Ala. H+(-1)=H+4
Thug,we have onlyfre distint right cosets ie., H +0,H +1, H +2, H +3, H +4.
Also these frve right cOSetE are disjoint and every element of G lie exactly in one of the
rngtt cosets of H
G =HH-1)H 2)H+3) H+ 4). [By Theorem 3)

Examgle 2If4b are any tuo elements ofa group Gand Hbe any subgroup ofG, the
prooe that

) Ha =H iff ab 1eH (ii) aH = bH iff ab e H.

Solution. i La Ha =Hb
We have to prove that ab eH
As
c O S E T S

2.7
ae Hb
(:Ha=Hb]
ab- l e Hbb-1 ’ able He
[:: b6' = e)
ab-l e H
Conversely, let ab-1 H
We have to prove that Ha = Hb

As ab-le H
Hab-l=H
Hab-1b- Hb Ha - Hb
(ü) Let aH = bH

We have to prove that a lb e H

As be bH
be aH [: aH= bH)
a'b ea'aH ’ albe H
Conversely, let a-b eH
We have to prove that aH =bH
As alb e H
a1bH = H
aa-lbH = aH ’ bH= aH.

Example 4. Ifa, b are any two elements ofa grOup Gand H be any subgroup of G, then
prove that
(i) a e Hb iff Ha = Hb (ü) aebH iff aH -bH.
Solution. i) Suppose that ae Hb
ab-l e Hbb- 1 ab-l e He
ab-1e H Hab-l= H
Hab-lb- Hb Ha = Hb
Conversely, let Ha = Hb
We have to prove that a e Hb
As a e Ha
a e Hb. [:Ha -Hb)
 GROUPS AND RINGA
2.8

(ii) Suppose that aebH

6-la e eH
b-la e b-1bH
6-' aH = H
6-la e H
aH =bH
bb-l aH -bH
Conversely, let aH- bH
We have to prove that ae bH
As a e aH

ae bH [: aH=bH

Example 5. Find the right coset decomposition ofgroup Gw.r.t. subgroup H and show
that G is the union ofall such right cosets.

Solution. Every coset of Hin Gis non empty and He = H is a right coset of H in G.
As every two right cosetsare either disjoint or identical, therefore for a e Gand a e H, we
have another distinct right coset Haof H inG.
Again, if there is an element b e Gsuch that b e Has wellas b e Ha, then there is another
distinct right coset Hb of H in G.
Proceeding in this way we get all distinct and disjoint right cosets of H in G.
Also union of all right cosets ofH in G is equal to G
Hence, G= Hu Ha u Hb U......

2.3. INDEX OF A SUBGROUP INA GROUP

IfH is a subgroup of agroup G, then the number of distinct right (left) cosets of Hin
H Gis
called index ofH in Gand is denoted by [G: H or by i, (H).

Example 6. IfG is the additive group of integersand H is the subgroup ofG obtaneo
on multiplying the elements ofG by 4, find the index of Hin G.
M.D.U. 2012, 08: K.U. 2011|
Solution. Here G= (..., -4, - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, .......
and
H= (..., - 16,- 12, - 8, - 4, 0, 4,8, 12, 16,
.... 1
Here Gis an abelian group w.r.t.
addition of integers, so every right coset is equaltothe
corresponding left coset in G.
C O S E T S

2.9
G
Now, right cosets of Hin are as under :
For 0e G, H +0= (.., - 16, - 12, - 8, 4, 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, .... )
For 1 e G, H+1={., - 15, - 11, -7, -3, 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, . .
For 2 e G, H +2= (..., - 14, -10, 6, - 2, 2, 6, 10, 14,
18, .. )
For 3 e G, H+3= {..., -13, -9, -5, -1,3, 7, 11, 15, 19, ... )
For 4 e G, H+4= (.., - 12, - 8, 4, 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, .......... ) = H+0
For 5 e G, H+5= (.., - 11, 7, - 3, 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, ........ ]= H+1
For 6 eG, H +6= {.., - 10, -6, -2, 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22, .......=H +2
The distinct and disjoint right cosets are H +0, H+1, H +2, H +3
G= (H +0) (H + 1)u(H +2) UH+3)
Hence, the index of H in G is 4.

2.4. RELATION OF CONGRUENCE MODULO OFA SUBGROUP IN AGROUP

If H is a subgroup of group G, then for a, b e G, we have a =b (mod )if and only if

ab-le H.

Theorem. The relation of congruence modulo of a subgroup H in a group G

defined by a =b (mod H) iff ab-le H is an equivalence relation.
Proof. Let H be a subgroup of Gsuch that ab-le H.
To prove that the congruence modulo is an equivalence relation :
Reflexivity : Let a be any element of G
aa-l=e e H (Mdentity ofH and G is same]
a=a(mod H)

Thus, the relation is reflexive.

Symmetry: Let a=b (mod H) for all a, b e G
ab-le H (ab- l 1 eH
b=a (mod H)
bale H
Thus, the relation is symmetric.
(mod H)
Transitivity : Let a =b(mod H) and b=c
We have prove that a =c(mod H)
As a =b (mod H)
 2.10
GROUPS AND RINGA
ab-l e H
..1)
Again, as b=c(mod H)
be-l e H
..(2)
From (1) and (2), (ab-') (c-l) e H [H is a subgroup of G
a(b-1 b) c-le H ’ aec-le H ’ ac-1 e H
a =c(modH)
a=b (mod H) and b=c (mod H) ’ a=c (mod H)
Thus, the relation is transitive.
Hence, the given relation is an equivalence relation.

Example 7. If[a] is the equivalence class corresponding toa

e G, then prove that
[a] = Ha.
Solution. By definition of equivalence class
[a] = (x e G:x=a (mod H)}
Let t be any arbitrary elemnent of Ha
te Ha

ta-1e Haa- 1 ta- le H

t=a (mod H) te [a]
Ha c la] ...(1)
Conversely, let ze a]

z=a (mod H) za-le H

za-la e Ha Ze Ha
[a] c Ha .(2)

From (1)and (2), la] = Ha.

2.5. LAGRANGES THEOREM

Statement: The order ofeach subgroup ofa finite group is a

ofthe group. divisor ofthe oru
KU. 2016, 12, 08, 07; C.D.L.U. 051
2016; M.D.U. 2014, 13,
Proof. Let G be a finite group of order n and H be
its subgroup of order m.
o(G) = n, o(H) = m
 2.11
COSETS

Let
H= (h,, hy, h, .....,.
For
a,E G, Ha, = (h,a, h, ay, h,a,, . . , h,a,)
For a, ¬ G, Ha, =(h, ag hg ay, hgaz,
For ag E G,

For e G, Ha, = (h, az, h, a¡, h, ag,. . , h, a)

Every right coset of FH has m distinct elements and there is no common element between
in G
the right cosets of H
G = Ha,U Ha, UHa, U.... UHa,
Thus number of elements in G = number of elements in Ha,
+ number of elements in Ha,
+ number of elements in Ha,

+ number of elements in Ha,

o(G) =k. m
n=k. m

o(G)
k=
o(H)

Hence, order of H is a divisor of order of G.

Remarks.
o(G)
n
1, k= m m=
m
Index of H in G

nus index of every subgroup of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the group.
2. As k n o(G)
m o(H)

order of G
Index of subgroup of finite group order of H
..12 GROUPS AND RINGS

2.6. THEOREM

Theorder ofevery element ofa finite group is a divisor ofthe order of the group.
20151
M.D.U.2018, 17, l1, 08, 05; K.U.

Proof. Let G be a finite group of order n and a be any element of G of order m.

Let H be a subgroup of G consisting of all integral powers of a

H= (.....,. a-8a2 a-, a, a', a', a, ...)
elements
We shall prove that H contains only m distinct
i.e., H= (a, a, a,.., a" =e}

Suppose that a = a where 1srs m, 1ssSm andr>s

a.a =[Link]

a-s = a

a- =e, where r-s<m

which is a contradiction as mis the least positive integer such that a" =e.
a, a', a, am are all distinct elements of H.

If 7>m is any integer, then = mp +q, where p, q are integers and 0 sq<m
Now, a =ap+ 9

= (a" )P,a =e.a = a?

As 0 sq<m, therefore a is one of the m elements a, a, a',......" = e

Hence H has onlym distinct elements and order of His m.
By Lagrange's theorem, m is a divisor of n.
Thus order of every element of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the
group.
Cor. 1. IfG isa finite group of order n and aeG, then a" =e.
Proof. Let ola)= m. The subset H of Gconsisting of all integral powers of ais a
of G and order of His m. subgrouP
By Lagrange's theorem, m is a divisor of n such that n = m.k, where k is an integer.
Now, a =amt =(a"y =e=e [::ola) = m ’ am =el
COSETS

2.13

Remarks.

1. Lagrange's theorem has a very important application :

IfG is a finite group of order nand m
is not adivisor of n, then there is
of order m.
no subgroup of G
Dor instance, if G is a group of order 6, then there can be no
subgroup ofG of order 5
or4. Similarly, a group of prime order can have no proper subgroups.
2. Converse of Lagrange's theorem is not true
: if mis a divisor of n, then it is not necessary that G
must have a subgroup of
order m.

Example 8. IfHçK are two subgroups ofa finite group G, then show that
[G: H] = [G: K] [K: H.
Solution. Since H and K are two subgroups of agroup G and HeK, therefore H is also
a subgroup of K. Now H is a subgroup of a finite groups G and K. Therefore using Lagrange's
theorem, we have
o(G) o(G) o(K)
[G:H]=
o(H) o(K) o(H)-=[G: KJK:H].

EXERCISE 2.1

1. Define a coset? Give

an example.
Deine left cosets and right cosets of asubgroup H of agroup G? Prove that any two left
cOsets of H in G are either identical or have no element in common.
De the group of all integers under usual addition and H=(4n :ne Z). Find the right
Or H in G generated by 0, 1, 2, 3. Also verify that these cosets are mutually disjoint
and their union is
G.
4. () Let G
=(1, o, a) be a group w.r.t. usual multiplication and H= (1). Find all the lef.
and right cosets of H in G.
(ü) Let G= (1, - 1, i, - i) be agroup w.r.t. usual multiplication and H=(1, - 1). Find all
the left cosets of HinG. Also show that Gis union of allleft cosets of Hin G.
5. Show
that two right cosets Ha, Hb are distinct if and only if the two left cosets a H,bH are
distinct. |K.U. 2015)
 2.14 GROUPS AND RINGS

right coset is a left coset.

O. Show that the set of the inverses of the elements of a
IK.U. 2014
G which
7. Prove that the only right (or left) coset ofa subgroup H in a group is also
a
subgroup of G, is H itself.
8. Prove that the intersection of two subgroups, each of finite index, is again a subgroup of
finite index.
9. Use Lagrange's theorenm to prove that a finite group cannot be expressed as the uni
two of its proper subgroups.
10. Use Lagrange's theorem to show that any group of prime order can have no pronas
subgroups.

ANSWERS

3. H + 0= (..... - 8, - 4, 0, 4, 8, .....
H+l= (....- 7, -3, 1, 5, 9, .. .
H+2 =....-6, - 2, 2, 6, 10, .. .
H+3= (...... - 5, - 1, 3, 7, 11, .....

4. (i) (1) H- (1), oH = (ol, a H= (o), H(1) = (1), Ho = (o), Ho² = (o)
(ü) (1) H= (1, - 1J), (- 1) H = (-1, 1), (E)H = , - i), (- i) H =(-,i).

2.7. NORMAL SUBGROUPS

Let G be a group under multiplication and H be any subgroup ofG and let x e G. Thel
Hr and xH are respectively the right and left cosets of H in G.
If G is abelian then Hx = xH for all x e G.

But even when Gis non-abelian and yet there exists subgroup H of G having the prope
Hx = xH for all x e G, then such subgroups of G are called
normal subgroups.
Anormal subgroup H of agroup G is denoted as HAG.
Definition. Asubgroup Hof Gis called a normal subgroup of Gif axhx-' e Hforrall
*eGand h e H.

Remark
For a group G, lel and Gare always the normal subgroups of G are
called

and these
trivialnormal subgroups of Gor improper normal subgroups of G.
C O S E T S

2.15

2.8. SIMPLE GROUPS

has noproper- normal subgroups, that

Ifa group G is, if the only normal subgroups of Gare
and Gitself,
then Gis called a simple group.
lel
e.g., Every group of prime order is simple because by Lagrange's theorem such a group has no
proper subgroups.

Note.

Every group of composite order is not simple.

99. sOME THEOREMSON NORMAL SUBGROUPS

Theorem1. Every subgroup of an abelian group is always normal.

[K.U. 2014]
Proof. Let G be an abelian group and H be a subgroup of G.
Let x eG and he Hbe arbitrary elements.
As h H ’ heG and x e G’ x-le G
x-he G
Now, xhx-l=x (x-1 h) (:Gis abelian so hl=lh)
= (xx-) h= eh = he H
Hence, H is a normal subgroup of an abelian group G.
Note.
once every cyclic group is abelian, therefore every subgroup of a cyelic group is normal.

Theorem 2. Asubgroup Hofa group Gis normal ifand only if

xHx= Hfor all xe G.
(K.U.2012, M.D.U. 2007
Proof. Let xHx-1 =]H ’ xhx-l e Hfor all xe G, h e H
H is a normal subgroup of G.
Conversely, let Hbe anormal subgroup of G.
xhx-'e H for all x eG, he H
Also, xhxexHx-l, where xHHr-l=(xhrl:he H)
Thus ...(1)
xH*'cH
 2.16 GROUPS AND RINO
Let x eG and he H. therefore x'eG and heH
hrl-le H for all x eG
x hre H r (r' hx)r'e xHxl
ehe e xHrrl
(rr)hrr )e rHrl
he xHr!

Hc rHr-l .(2

From (1) and (2), we have xHr=H for all x e G.

Theorem 3. Asubgroup Hofa group Gis normal ifand only ifeach left coset od
Hin Gis aright coset of Hin G.
[K.U. 2014; M.D.U. 2013
Proof. Let H be anormal subgroup of G.
zHr-l= Hfor all eG
(rHr-') (x) = Hr
zH= Hr for all x e G
Conversely, suppose that each left coset of H in G is a right coset of H in G.
Let x e G. then xH= Hy for some yeG
Since eeH te E rH

IeHy [: xH=yl

Also, forre G, Hr is aright coset of Hin G

er e Hr ["eeHl

Ie Hr

.:. Hy, Hr are two right cosets of Hin G, each containing x.

Hy n Hr
Since two right cosets of H in Gare disjoint or identical
Hy = Hr
Thus zH= Hy = H
xH=Hr
xHr-1 Hrr-1
COSETS
2.17

xHx -l He = H
xHx-c H
xhx- e H for all h e H, ze G
is a normal subgroup of G.
H
enrem4. Asubgroup Hof Gis normal ifand only if the product of too right
cosets ofHin Gis again a right coset ofHin G.
M.D.U. 2011]
Droof Let Ha and Hb be two right cosets of H in G and H be a normal subgroup of G.
Now, (Ha) (Hb) = H (aH)b
= H (Ha)b (::His normal, so Ha = aH)
= Hab, where ab e G
So product of two right cosets is als0 a right coset.
Conversely, if Hx and Hx are two right cosets of HinG, then Hr Hrlis also a right
coset ofH in G.

Since e e H e= ex ex1e Hz Hr-l

Also, H is itself a right coset in G.
e e H and e e Hx Hr-l
So both right cosets of H in G are either equal or
disjoint Ref. Theorem 2 on page 2.2)
i.e., Hx Hxl = H for all xeG

hyx hxeH for all xeG and for all h,, heH
eh, H=H
H is a normal subgroup ofG.
Theorem 5. Intersection of two normal
subgroup. subgroups of a group is also a normal
Proof. Let Hand Kbe two
normal subgroups of group G.
Let
te HoK te Hand t e K
Let
*¬G. Then xtx-l e H and xtxeK
*t* e HaKfor all xe G and te HoK
Hence HoKis a
normal subgroup of G.
2.18
GROUP8 AND RINO

Theorem6. Intersection ofanyycollection ofnormalsubgroups is itselfa normal

subgroup.
normal subgroups of G
Proof. Let |H :ieT) be afamily of
Let H= n H,,where Tis an index set such that for all i e T, H, is a normal subgrou
icT
of G.

Let he H he H for allie T

Let x e G, then xhx'e H for all ie T

xhxle oieT H, = H

Hence, H is a normal subgroup of G.

Theorem 7. IfM and Naretwo normal subgroups ofG such that NoM=(e), then
for everyn eNand meM, show that nm = mn.
Proof. Since m e M me G
(K.U. 2015; M.D.U. 2015
As N is a normal subgroup, therefore m-' nm e N for n eN

n-l (m'nm) e N [:: n'e N

n-l m nme N

Similarly, n-'ml nm e M

From (1) and (2), n-l m-l nm e NoM

But NoM = le) ’ n m-'nm =e

nm = mn.

Theorem 8. Let Hbea subgroup of Gand Nbe a normal subgroup of G. he

HnNisa normal subgroup ofH.

Proof. Since H and N are subgroups of G.

HoNis asubgroup of G.
Also HoNeH
Let x e H and te HnN ’ te H and te N
c O S E T S

2.19

But Nis a noormal subgroup of G.

xtx- le Hand xtx 1e N xtx le HoN
HONis a normal subgroup of H.

EXERCISE 2.2

1eG is a group and H is a subgrOup of index 2

in G, prove that H is a normal subgroup
of G.
[K.U. 2014]
Show that a normal subgroup is
commutative with every complex of the group.
o TEN is a normal subgroup of G
and H is any subgroup of G, prove that NH
of G. is a subgroup
A IfM and N are normal subgroups of
G, prove that MN is also a normal subgroup
of G.
(KU. 2017, 11; M.D.U. 2014, 12, 08,
03)
5. Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of
G. Prove that gHg is a subgroup of G. where
aLoc gHg= (ghgl :he H,g eG).
6. If H is the only subgroup of finite
order in the group G, then prove that H is
subgroup of G. the normal
(KU. 2016; M.D.U. 2013|
7. If a cyclic subgroup N of G is
normal in G, then show that every subgroup of N is
in G. normal
M.D.U. 2017, 16)
2.10. QUOTIENT GROUP (OR
FACTOR GROUP)
Let H be a normal subgroup of G. If a e
Thus we simply G, then right coset Ha is same as left
that coset aH.
say Ha is a coset of Hin G.
Let GIH be the collection of
all cosets of H in G
i.e.,
GIH = (Ha :a e G}
If a, b e G, then
we have
(Ha) (Hb) = H (aH) b [:: aH = Ha for normal subgroup H)
= HHab - Hab
Hence, the set G/H of all cosets ofH
and is called in Gis a group with respect to multiplication of cosets
lquotient group of Gby H.
The identity
element of quotient group G/H is H.
 2.20
GROUPs AND RING
2.11. sOME THEOREMS ON OUOTIENT GROUPS
Theorem 1. Shor that erery quotient gronp ofan abelian group is abelian,
Proof. Let Gbe an ahelian grvup and let Hhe a subgroup of G. Then Hin a Norm
subgroup of G.
If a, be Gthen Ha. Hb eGH
and (Ha Hb)- Hab Hbe |:Gis abelian
(Hb(Ha)

GH is an abelian group

Theorem 2. IfH isanormal subgroup ofG anda e Gis oforder n, prove that if
Ha)=m, then mdivides n.
Proof. We know that the identity element of GH is H. Ife is the identity of Gand
o(a)n, then a =e
Ha' He =H ..)
But Ha' H(a aa ....a)= (Ha) (Ha).... Ha ) =(Ha
(Ha =He =H, which is an identity of G/H |Using (1)
As order of Ha in GH is mand (Ha =identity of G/H
m divides n
I Ifola) =m, then a" =eiff mis a divisor of n
Theorem 3. Prove that every quotient group ofa cyclic group is cyclic.

Proof. Let G be a cyclic group such that G = (a) IKU. 2017, 13: M.D.U. 20151

As Gis a cyclic group, therefore Gis also an abelian group

Let H be a subgroup of G
As every subgroup of an abelian group is normal, therefore His a normal subgroup o
Let a" eG. Then Ha" e GH

Also Ha =H(aa .... a) =Ha Ha... Ho =(Ha

Therefore GH is also a cyclic group with generator Ha ie., GIH = < Ha >.
c o S E T S

2.21

Theorem4. Let H,and H, be tco normal subgroups of G. Proce that

H,. GIH,=GIH,
ifand only ifM, -
Proof. If H,- H, then clearly G/H,- GH,
Conversely, suppose that

As H, e GIH, therefore H, GH, (:GIH, -GIH,)

Sowe get H, equal to some coset of H, in GBut two coseta are either disjoint or equal.
H, - H, Ies common element of H, and H,)
Hence the result.

sOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 1. IfZ is the additive group of integersand A- (mx:r eZi, where mis a
fred positive integer, write the elements of quotient group ZH.
Solution. Since Z is abelian, therefore H is a nornal nubgroup of Z The elements of
Z/H are cosets of Hin Z, which can be written as
H+0= H = (.... -2n, - m, 0. m, 2m,
H+1= (.... - 2m + L -m+ L0- L, m-L 2m -L .
H+2= (.... - 2m + 2 -m22 m -2 m -2....

H+ (m - 2) =(.... - m -2 -2m-2 m-2 3n -2

H+ (m - 1)= ... - m - L -l, m- l m-1 3mn- L,
IfsiIS any integer, then by division algorithm, there eust integers q and r such that
S= mq+r, 0srsm-1

H+s= H+ mq +r
=H+r [ By definition, me H)
Thus H+s= H+[Link] 0rsm-l.
which is one of the mcosets ofHin 2.
Hence, there are only mdistinct elements in the set Z/ H.
 GROUPs AND RINGA
2.22
(5*:xe Z)) be a
Example 2. IfZis the additive
group of integers and H= subgroup
composition table for ZIH.
ofZ, then prepare the
H +3, H + 4)
Solution. Here Z/H= (H, H+ 1, H + 2,
(H +b)= H + (a +b)
If a, be Z, then (H + a)+
-be H
Also H+a =H+bif and only ifa
H+0=H+5, H + 1= H+6, H + 2 = H +
7, H +3= H+8and so on.

The composition table for Z/H is

H H+1 H+2 H+3 H+4

H H H+1 H+2 H+3 H+4

H+1 H+1 H+2 H+3 H+4 H

H+2 H+2 H+3 H+4 H H+1

H+3 H+3 H+4 H H+1 H+2

H+4 H+4 H H+1 H+2 H+3

From the above table we see that identity element is H and inverses of H, H +1, H+ 2,
i+3, H+4 are H, H +4,H +3,H+2, and H +1 respectively.
Also, corresponding elements in each row and column are same.
Hence Z/His an abelian group.
Remark
IfG is a finite group and H is a normal subgroup of G, then
o(GH) = number of distinct right cosets of H in G
o(G)
o(H)
(By Lagrange's theorem)

EXERCISE 2.3
1. IfGis a finite group and His a
normal subgroup of G, then show that o(G)
o(G/) =o (H)
2. Let G be a group of
all 2 x 2 matrices over
reals of type a b where ad.# 0 and
0 d
H=
is a subgroup of G.
Show that G/H is abelian.
 HOMOMORPHISMS AND
3 AUTOMORPHISMS

3.1. INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we shall study the concepts of homomorphism and isomorphism of groups.
We shall also discuss inner automorphisms and automorphisms of cyclic groups. Also, we shall
discuss centre of a group and derived group of a group.
By homomorphism we mean a mapping from one algebraic system to a like algebraic
system which preserves structure. An isomorphisn could also be termed as an indirect" equality
in algebraic systems. An isomorphism of a group Gto itself is called automorphism.
3.2. HOMOMORPHISMS OF GROUPS

Let G, and G, be two groups and 'o' and '*' denote their respective binary compositions.
T'hen a mapping f : G, ’ G, defined by f (a o b) =f(a) f (b) for all a. b e G, is called
homomorphism.
Here, f(G,) = (fw) :xeG,) is called the homomorphic image of G,.
Illustrations.
l. Let G, and G, be two groups such that '+' and:' are their respective binary compositions.
nen a mapping f: G,’ G, defined by fla +b)=fla'.fb) for all a. be Gis called
homomorphism of G, into Gg
Let G, and G, be two groups such that.' and+ arr ther respective binary compositions.
1hen a mapping f:G, ’ G, defined by fla . b) =fa) +flb) or all a, b e Gis called
homomorphism of G, into Gg
by
Let G, and G, be two additive groups. Then f: G, ’ G, defined
T(a + b) =fla) + f(b)for all a, b e Gis called bomomorphism of G, into G,
*Let G, and G, be two multiphcative groups. Then f:G G, defined by
into G,.
flab) = fta)f(6) for all a, b e G, is called homomorphism of G,