Chapter 01

PERIODIC
CLASSIFICATION
By Mr ABDON J
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION
Periodic Classification
Periodic classification is the process of arranging elements in a tabular display called Periodic
Table.

The arrangement of the elements is based on the similarities and differences in physical and
chemical properties.
Element classification simplify the study of elements.
This chapter covers:

·[Link] of periodicity.

·[Link] trends in properties of elements.

·[Link] relationships of the elements.

A:CONCEPT OF PERIODICITY
Periodicity

It is a tendency of a particular property of an element to appear every after a certain specific

interval in a given arrangement.

·The modern periodic table is a result of the efforts made by different scientists,which is
associated with several ideas of scientists including:

·(i)Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (1780-1849)

·(Ii)John Alexander Newland

·(Ii)Julius Lothar Meyer

·(iv)Dmitri Ivanovich Mendelee

(v)Henry Moseley(1887-1915)
[Link] WOLFGANG DÖBEREINER (1780-1849)
Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner in 1829,observed that many of
the known elements could be grouped in a set of three elements that have similar properties.
These sets were called TRIADS.
Döbereiner's Triads Table:

Element Ar Element Ar Element Ar

Li 7 Ca 40 Cl 35.5

Na 23 Sr 88 Br 80

K 39 Ba 137 1 127

Johann Wolfgang suggested that:

"All the elements could be grouped in forms of Triads,but,later attempts to expand his
Döbereiner concept was unsucessful."

[Link] NEWLAND(1837-1895)

John Newland observed that,the properties of the elements were repeatedly every after eight
elements,like a rule of an Octave in music.

Therefore,Newland developed a law of which he called

Newland law of octave.
Newland law of octave states:
"The properties of elements are repeated every after the eight elements like a rule of an
octave in music."

Parts of newland's octaves

H Li Be B C N O

F Na Mg Al S P S

Cl K Ca Cr Ti,Mn Fe

Ni,Co Cu Zn Y In As Se

However,the law of octaves was ignored for years:

a)It worked only for the first 17 elements.
[Link] MEYER(1830-1895)

√Was a German chemist who produced the first periodic table of only 28 elements,organized
by their valences.

"He observed that elements of similar properties occupied the same position on the curve."
Example:Alkali metals Li,Na,K,and Rb,occupy the same peaks/position on curve.
√In 1869,Meyer compiled a periodic table that consisted of 56 elements based on regular
repeating patterns of physical properties such as molar volume.
Molar mass was obtained by:
IV: DMITRI MENDELEEV(1834-1907)

A Russian chemist in 1869.

Mendeleev compiled the periodic table of the known elements in ascending order
of their atomic weights.
Elements were placed in order of increasing atomic masses.
Mendeleev developed ideas of placing elements into Periods and Groups.

He put forward the PERIODIC LAW which states:

"The properties of the Element are periodic function of their atomic weight."
Mendel predicted the existence and properties of new elements and left gaps for the unknown
elements.

FEATURES OF MENDELEEV'S PERIODIC TABLE:

The Mendeleev's periodic table of elements consists of twelve horizontal rows of elements

called Periods and eight vertical columns called Groups.

The Mendeleev's work is summarized in the following properties:

1st:If the element are arranged according to their atomic weight,they exhibit an
apparent periodicity of properties.

2nd:Elements which are similar in chemical properties have atomic weight which are
similar in value or which increase regularly.

3rd:The arrangement of the elements or groups of the

elements in the order of their atomic weight corresponds to their valences.
 4th:Elements with small weight differ widely and the magnitude of their
atomic weights determine their
properties.
5th:It was expected that there could be discoveries of new elements that were not yet
known,for example,elements that are analogous to aluminium and silicon whose atomic
weight would be between 65 and 75.
6th:The atomic weight of an element may sometimes be changed or corrected based
on the knowledge of the
closely related element.

Usefulness of mendeleev's periodic table

The Mendeleev classification was useful in two ways:

 ·Elements with similar chemical properties appear in the same Group,for example,the

halogens,Alkali earth metals were easily identified.

 The table was successful in predicting the existence and properties of the elements
which were not yet discovered. (The position for such elements was kept empty.)

 The table was also useful in checking the relative atomic masses of the elements.
 Shortcomings of mendeleev's periodic table
The following are the shortcomings of the Mendeleev periodic table;
a)Mendeleev failed to assign a correct position for Hydrogen in the periodic [Link] it
resembles the element in Group IA &C.
b)The 14 rare earth metals were placed in the Group (Group VIIl)even though they have
different atomic weights.
c)Some pairs of elements had to be included in inverse order of their relative atomic masses
so as to maintain the correct relationships of the elements.

Eg: Of these pairs were:

 Argon(39.9)and Potassium (39.1)

Cobalt(58.9)and Nickel (58.7)


 Tellurium(128)and lodine (127)

MODERN PERIODIC TABLE : Henry Gwyn Moseley (1887-1915)

Moseley was a British physicist who developed the modern periodic [Link] elements in the
periodic table are arranged in order of increasing atomic number rather than atomic
weight,proposed by Mendeleev.

The arrangement of elements in order of increasing atomic number validated the formulation of
the modern periodic table and eliminated the shortcomings in the Mendeleev table.
He developed the modern periodic law, which states:"The chemical and physical properties of
elements are periodic function of their atomic number."

FEATURES OF THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table consists of seven horizontal rows called
PERIODS and eight vertical columns called GROUPS.

GROUPS:
A GROUP is a set of elements which have the same number of electrons in their outermost
shell,hence have similar properties.
There are:
GROUP IA-Called Alkali metals,have one electron in valence shell.
GROUP IIA-Called Alkali earth metals with two electrons in valence shell.

GROUP IIA to VIA-Are Metalloids.

GROUP VIIA-Are Halogens with seven electrons in the valence shell
GROUP VIII-Have eight electrons in valence [Link] are called NOBLE GASES.
Between Group IIA and V IlA are called Transition Elements.

PERIODS
 The 1st Period is the shortest with only two elements which are Hydrogen and Helium.
  The 2nd and 3rd Periods consist of eight elements in each, which start from Li
to Ne and Na to Ar,respectively.
 The 4th and 5th Periods are long with 18 elements each,which start from K to Kr and
Rb to Xe respectively.
 The 6th and 7th Periods are incomplete periods of elements, which are
radioactive,including rare earth elements (atomic
numbers 57 to 71).

BLOCKS OF THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

Depending on the types of orbitals occupied by the electrons in the outermost shell,the
periodic table is divided into four main blocks,namely:
 s-block

p-block

 d-block

 f-block
The letters s,p,d,and f were coined from the properties of spectral line observed from
Hydrogen atom which were:

·s-sharp
 ·p-principle

·d-diffuse

·f-fundamental
The S-BLOCK-Consists of elements whose outermost electrons occupy the s orbitals and
constitute of elements in Group IA and IIA,and Helium(He)in group [VIIl A].
The P-BLOCK -Consists of elements whose outermost electrons occupy the p orbitals and
consist of elements in Group IIlA to VIIIA with exception of Helium [He].

The D-block consists of elements where the added electron occupies

the d-orbitals,which includes the elements in Group 3 to [Link] elements
have the general outermost electronic configuration of (n-1)dl to 10 nS l to 2
The F-block consists of elements where the added electron occupies the f-
orbitals.
→ Elements in the f-block include the Lanthanide
(atomic number 57 to 71)and Actinides(atomic number 89 to 103) whose general
outermost electronic configuration is: (n-2)f¹tol⁴(n-1)d⁰ to l or 2ns¹ or 2
The d and f-block elements are collectively known as TRANSITION [Link]
exhibit transition behaviour between s and p-block elements.
Comparison between mendeleev's and modern
Periodic table
The arrangement of elements using atomic mass in
Mendeleev's table and atomic numbers in the Modern table
resulted in a few differences and similarities of elements in the
periodic table.

SIMILARITIES
a)Both used columns and rows to classify elements.
b)Both tables aimed at simplifying the study of the elements.
c)Both tables indicated periodicity of properties of the
elements.

Differences between Mendeleev Periodic Table and Modern

Periodic Table

Mendeleev Periodic Table Modern Periodic Table

Elements were arranged in Elements were arranged in

order of increasing atomic order of increasing atomic
weight number.
Table contained gaps for the There were no gaps in the
unknown elements. modern periodic table.

Elements with similar

properties were placed in
different groups and periods.
(Note:This handwritten point
appears to have a mistake,
Elements with different
properties were placed as the modern table places
together. similar properties together and
different properties
apart.)

Inner transition elements

(Lanthanides and Actinides) are
Rows of inner transition included as separate
elements were not included
rows at the bottom.
 Hydrogen is placed on top of
Failed to locate the position
Group 1,but its dual nature is of
Hydrogen
still acknowledged.

Isotopes of the same lsotopes of the same

element were placed element are placed together
differently (due to
different (due to the same atomic
atomic weights) number).

[Link] TRENDS IN PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS.

Periodic trend is a regular variation in the properties of elements with increasing atomic
number,following regular variation in the electronic structure of the elements.
The arrangement of elements using the atomic number in the modern periodic table makes easy
the study of physical and chemical properties of elements.

B:Periodic trend in physical properties of elements includes:

 Atomic size
 Ionization Energy
 Electron Affinity
  Electronegativity
 Metallic character
 Melting point (MP)
 Boiling point

Periodic trend in chemical properties of elements includes:

 Variation in the reaction pattern of the groups IA,IIA and VIIA

 Chemical properties along period 3.

PERIODIC TREND IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The major periodic trends in physical properties are discussed as follows:

1:ATOMIC SIZE
Atomic size of an element is determined by the atomic radius, which is the diameter of the one
half the distance between two bonded atoms.

Factors that Affect Atomic Size

There are two factors which affect the atomic size of atom:
[Link] of Nuclear Charge
[Link](Shielding)effect

1. Effect of Nuclear charge:

The nuclear charge is the attractive force that pulls all the electrons closer to the nucleus.
The higher the nuclear charge,the smaller the atomic radius.

Down the Group the Atomic Radius Increases due to the decrease in the effective nuclear
charge caused by an increase in the number of shells.
Along the Period, the Atomic Radius Decreases due to increase in the number of protons
which increases nuclear charge.(from left to right)

2. Screening (Shielding) effect:

Screening effect is the tendency of the innermost electrons to prevent the outermost electron from
receiving full influence of protons from the nucleus.
Shielding effect is caused by the repulsive force between the electrons in the inner shell and those
in the outer shell.
Down the Group,the shielding effect Increases which lowers the nuclear charge and increases size.
Along the Period,the shielding effect Decreases due to increase in number of electrons but the
number of shells remain constant which lead to increase of nuclear charge
2. IONIC RADII

The ionic radius is half the distance between two ions that are barely touching each other.
Depending on the electronic charge of an ion,the ionic radius may be large or small than the
atomic size of their corresponding cations or anions.

Neutral atoms have large atomic radii than their corresponding cations.
Example: Na has a larger size than Na+.

Reason: Because electrons are removed and the remaining fewer electrons in Na+ experience a
stronger nuclear attraction force.
Few atoms consisting of only one electron in their valence shells,the loss of one electron is
accompanied with the loss of one shell which reduces the cation atomic radius.
On other hand, Anions have small atomic radii than their corresponding atoms.
Example:Cl- has small size than Cl
Reason:
The nuclear attractive force is distributed to a larger number of [Link] the result,the
electrons
experience weaker attractive force compared to a neutral atom.
Important:The general trend in Ionic radii is the same as that of the atomic radius which
decreases from across the period due to increased atomic nuclear charge.
However,Down the Group Increase because of an increase in the number of shells.
Practice Questions
Qn 1:Arrange the following in order of increasing atomic size: Na+,CI-,Mg²+,Ar,and s²-.
Qn 2:The atomic size of Ca is comparably high than that of Ca+², give reason
charge
·Screening or shield

in
III IONIZATION ENERGY
lonization energy is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from the valency
[Link] energy must be applied to overcome the electrostatic force of attraction between the
electron and the nucleus.
lonization Energy is determined by:
Atomic size
Nuclear charge
Screening or shielding effect
g effect
Electronic locality (or orbital)

[Link] Size(Atomic Radius)

Small atomic size means the valence electrons are closer to the nucleus.
This results in a stronger force of attraction between the nucleus and the valence electron.
Therefore,more energy is required to remove the electron,leading to high ionization
energy.
Large atomic size means the valence electrons are further from the nucleus.
This results in a weaker force of attraction.
Therefore,less energy is required to remove the electron,leading to low ionization
energy.
Trend: IE decreases as atomic size increases.

[Link] Charge(Number of Protons)

An increase in the nuclear charge (i.e.,more protons) causes an increase in the force of attraction
between the nucleus and the valence electron.
This makes it more difficult to remove an electron from the valence shell.
Thus,the ionization energy increases with an increase in nuclear charge.
Trend: IE increases as nuclear charge increases (moving left to right across a period).

[Link] or Shielding Effect

Electrons that are present in the inner shells (between the nucleus and the valence electrons) reduce
the electrostatic attraction felt by the valence electron toward the [Link] is called the
screening or shielding effect.
A large number of inner electrons leads to a large screening effect.
This weakens the attraction on the valence electron. Consequently,the energy required to
remove the electron is less,resulting in lower ionization energy.
Trend: IE decreases as the shielding effect increases.

[Link] Penetration Ability in Orbitals (electron locality)

The ability of an electron to get close to the nucleus is called penetration.
Within the same energy level (same principal quantum number,n), s-electrons are closer to
the nucleus than p -electrons, which are closer thand-electrons, and so on.
·The order of penetration is:

s>p>d>f
This means s-electrons are held more tightly and require higher ionization energy to
remove compared to p,d,or f -electrons in the same shell.

[Link] Configuration Stability (Half-filled and Completely-filled Orbitals)

Atoms that have completely filled or half-filled subshells possess extra stability due to
symmetry and exchange energy
Examples:Noble gases (mp⁶),nitrogen (p³),and berylium (s²).
Because of this high stability, extra energy is required to disturb the configuration by
removing an electron. Therefore,atoms with these stable configurations have exceptionally
high ionization energy.
Example:Nitrogen([He]2s²2p³)has a higher IE than Oxygen ([He]2s²2p⁴)even though Oxygen
has a higher nuclear charge, due to Nitrogen's stable half-filled 2p subshell.
An atom whose electronic configuration is fully filled (s²,p⁶,etc.) or half-filled
(p³,d³,f',etc.)orbitals is said to be more stable.
For this reason,atoms with stable electronic configurations (like those in Group 2,Group 15,and
Group 18)are very reluctant to lose an electron,and thus have high ionization energies (IE).

Successive lonization Energies

It is important to note that any element with more than one
electron will have multiple ionization energies:First(1st),Second (2nd),Third(3rd),and so on.
The general trend is that successive ionization energies always increase(1st IE<2nd IE<3rd
IE…)because:
[Link] subsequent electron is being removed from an ion with a greater positive charge.
[Link] remaining electrons are held more strongly by the nucleus,requiring more energy
to remove them.
Significant Jump in IE
A very large increase (a "jump") between successive ionization energies occurs when the electron
being removed comes from a full,inner electron shell (a shell closer to the nucleus),which is much
more stable than the previous valence shell.
Example of Successive lonization Energies,
The following table shows the successive ionization energies (in kJ/mol)for
Sodium(Na),Magnesium(Mg),and Aluminum(Al).

Element 1st IE(kJ/mol) 2nd IE(kJ/mol) 3rd IE(kJ/mol)

Na 496 4562 6912
Mg 738 1450 7732

Al 577 1816 2744

Analysis of IE Jumps
Sodium(Na):There is a huge jump between the 1st IE(496) and the 2nd IE(4562).This indicates
that the first electron was removed from the valence shell (3s|),while the second electron was
removed from the much more stable,full inner shell(2p⁶).This is why Sodium always forms a +1
ion.
Magnesium(Mg):There is a huge jump between the 2nd IE (1450)and the 3rd IE(7732).This
indicates that the first two electrons were removed from the valence shell (3s²),while the third
electron was removed from the stable,full inner shell(2p⁶).This is why Magnesium always forms a
+2 ion.
Aluminum (Al):There are no huge jumps among the first three IE [Link] indicates that all
three electrons were removed from the valence shell (3s²3p').The large jump appears between the
3rd IE(2744)and the 4th IE(11577,not shown).This is why Aluminum always forms a +3 ion.

Periodic Trends in lonization Energy

lonization energy generally follows a predictable pattern across the periodic table,determined by the
interactions between the nucleus and the outer electrons.

Across a Period (Left to Right)

The first ionization energy generally increases from left to right across a period.
Reason:
1ncreased Nuclear Charge: The number of protons (nuclear charge)increases,creating a stronger
attraction for all electrons.
2. Constant Shielding: Electrons are added to the same main energy shell,so the inner electron
shielding effect remains roughly constant.
3. Decreased Atomic Radius: The stronger pull of the nucleus contracts the electron cloud,reducing
the atomic size.
The net effect is that the valence electrons are held more tightly,requiring more energy to
remove them.
Down a Group (Top to Bottom)
The first ionization energy generally decreases from top to bottom down a group.
Reason:
1. Increased Atomic Size: The number of electron shells
(energy levels)[Link] valence electrons are further from the nucleus.
2. Increased Shielding Effect: The larger number of inner electron shells effectively
"shield"the valence electrons from the full positive charge of the nucleus.
The net effect is that the valence electrons are held more loosely,requiring less energy to
remove them.
The discrepancy in the trend of the [Link] observed between:

 Nitrogen (N) and Oxygen (o) in period 2.

Magnesium(Mg) and Aluminium (Al) in period 3.

  Phosphorus(P) and Sulphur(s) in period 3.

 Beryllium (Be) and Boron (B)

A. Beryllium (Be) and Boron (B)

The lonization Energy trend appears to deviate in these two because:

1. 1st [Link] Be involves the removal of an electron from 2s orbital that is full-filled with electrons.
[Link] B,1st [Link] an un-paired electron in the 2p orbital 2s is closer to the
nucleus than 2p,hence there is a high I.E. for Be than B.

B. Nitrogen and Oxygen

The decrease in the 1S IE across the period from Nitrogen (N) to Oxygen (O)is also observed
but follows the general trend of increasing IE across the period.
Nitrogen consists of 2p paired electrons in 2porbitals which is a half-filled,therefore stable,than
oxygen,which is one paired and.…

C. Magnesium and Aluminium

The decrease in the 1'IE across the period is also observed when moving from Magnesium
(Mg)to Aluminum (Al),this does not follow the general trend.

In Mg,the 1 IE involves removal of an electron from a set-up paired electron from 3s-
orbitals(More stable).
In Al,the 1⁵'IE involves removal of an electron from a single 3p unpaired electron which is
unstable.(Less stable).
D. Phosphorus and Sulphur
Phosphorus has high IE than Sulphur due to half-filled electronic configuration which is
stable,hence,to remove electron
from Phosphorus high IE is needed,etc.

[Link] AFFINITY
Definition
The Electron Affinity (EA) is defined as the amount of energy change that occurs when one mole of
gaseous atoms each gain one electron to form one mole of gaseous ions.
X(g)+e-→X-(g) EA₁
The first electron affinity(EA₁ )is usually exothermic (releases energy,EA₁ is
negative). Subsequent electron affinities (e.g.,EA₂ )are always endothermic
(require energy,EA₂ is positive) because energy is needed to force an electron into
an already negatively charged ion,overcoming electrostatic repulsion.
General Trends in Electron Affinity
Across a Period (Left to Right)
Electron Affinity generally increases (becomes more negative) across a period from
left to right.
Reason:The atomic size decreases and the effective nuclear charge increases. This means a neutral
atom has a greater attraction for an incoming electron,leading to a larger release of energy (more
negative EA).
Exception:Noble gases have a stable,full valence shell,so they have a positive EA(no tendency to
gain an electron). Group 2(Alkaline Earth Metals) and Group 15(Pnictogens) also often show
deviations due to their stable electron configurations(s² and p³,respectively).

Down a Group (Top to Bottom)

Electron Affinity generally decreases (becomes less negative)down a group.
Reason: The atomic size increases and the incoming electron is added to an orbital further from the
nucleus, causing a decrease in the attraction between the nucleus and the incoming electron.

Major Exception:Electron affinity is usually less negative for elements in the second
period (e.g.,F,O)compared to those in the third period (e.g..Cl,S) This is due to the
small size of the [Link] electron being added experiences stronger
 electron-electron repulsion in the smaller n=2 shells than it would in the larger n =3
shells of the third-period [Link] example,Cl has a more negative EA than F.
Factors Affecting Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity depends on the following factors:
[Link] Size
[Link]/Shielding Effect

[Link] Configuration

[Link] Size
Electron affinity is inversely related to the atomic size.
Smaller size →Closer distance between the nucleus and the incoming electron → Greater
EA (more negative).
[Link] or Shielding Effect
Screening/shielding effect is the reduction of the attractive force between the nucleus and its
outer electrons due to the presence of inner-shell electrons.
Electron affinity is inversely related to the screening effect.
Greater shielding Weaker attraction for the incoming electron Lesser EA (less negative).
[Link] Configuration
A highly stable electron configuration results in a very low or positive(endothermic)electron
affinity,as the atom resists gaining an electron that would disrupt its stability.
Examples:
Completely filled subshells (e.g.,Group 18:p⁶).

Completely filled shells (e.g..Group 2:s²).

Half-filled subshells(e.g.,Group 15:p²).
The magnitude of electron affinity in most atoms is largely influenced by the electronic
configuration of the element.
An atom that has a full-filled or half-filled electron shell (or subshell)is less likely to accept
an additional electron. Why?
REASON: Full-filled(e.g.,s²,p⁶)or half-filled (e.g.,p³) configurations are exceptionally
[Link] an extra electron would disrupt this stability,requiring energy input instead of
releasing [Link] results in a less favorable (less negative or even positive)electron affinity value.
Exceptions to the General Electron Affinity Trend
The general trend for electron affinity is that it increases across a period (becomes more
negative)and decreases down a group (becomes less negative).However,there are some significant,
commonly observed exceptions:
[Link] 1A(Alkali Metals)[Link] 2A(Alkaline Earth Metals), Group 2A(Be,Mg,Ca,Sr, and
Ba)have significantly lower electron affinities (less negative,often positive)than the preceding
elements in Group 1A (Li,Na,K, Rb,and Cs) in the same period.
Explanation:
Group 1A elements have an electron configuration of ns¹. They readily accept one electron to
achieve the relatively stable ns²configuration,leading to a measurable, negative EA.
Group 2A elements have a full-filled ns²outer subshell.
The incoming electron must enter the next, higher-energy np subshell,which is unfavorable and
requires [Link] stability results in an EA close to zero or positive.

[Link] 14 [Link] 15 Elements

Similarly, Group 15 elements (N,P,As,etc.)have lower electron affinities than the preceding
Group 14 elements (C, Si,Ge,etc.)in the same period.
Explanation:
·Group 15 elements have a half-filled np³subshell, which confers extra [Link] an
electron forces it into an already occupied p orbital,causing increased electron-electron repulsion
and disrupting the stable half-filled [Link] is energetically unfavorable.

[Link] Period Elements [Link] Period Elements (The Fluorine Anomaly)

The electron affinities of elements in the second period (B to F)are generally less negative
than those of the elements immediately below them in the third period (Al to Cl).

The most notable exception is Fluorine(F)compared to Chlorine(Cl): Fluorine's electron affinity is

less negative than that of chlorine.
Explanation: Fluorine is an extremely small atom. When an incoming electron approaches the
compact n=2 valence shell,it experiences significant electron-electron repulsion from the existing
valence [Link] repulsion outweighs the attraction from the nucleus,resulting in a lower
(less favorable/less negative) electron affinity than [Link],being larger,accommodates
the added electron in the more spacious n=3 shell with less repulsion.
 V. ELECTRONEGATIVITY (X)
Definition
Electronegativity (x) is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons
towards itself in a chemical bond.
This is a dimensionless property (it has no units)because it is a relative measure of attraction.
The most common scale used is the Pauling scale, where Fluorine (F)is assigned the highest
value(x≈4.0).
An atom with a high electronegativity has a strong tendency to attract electrons toward itself
but has a lower lonization Energy(IE)and a high (more negative)Electron Affinity(EA).

General Periodic Trend

Electronegativity generally increases from left to right across the period and decreases from
top to bottom down a group.
Across a Period (Left to Right):Electronegativity Increases
Reason: Moving across a period,the effective nuclear charge(Zeff) increases because the number of
protons increases while the shielding by core electrons remains relatively [Link] increased
pull on the valence electrons makes it more difficult for an atom to lose an electron (high IE)but
much easier to attract and hold a shared pair of electrons,increasing the electronegativity.

Down a Group(Top to Bottom):Electronegativity Decreases

Reason:Moving down a group,the atomic radius increases due to the addition of new electron
[Link] greater distance between the nucleus and the valence electrons,combined with
increased shielding,weakens the attractive force on the shared electron pair,causing the
electronegativity to decrease.
Relationship to Chemical Bonding
Electronegativity is critical because the difference in
electronegativity(△x)between two bonded atoms determines
the type of chemical bond formed:
 △X
Bond Type
△x>1.7(approx.) lonic

0.4<△x<1.7(approx.) Polar Covalent

△x<0.4(approx.) Nonpolar Covalent

Down the group,the electronegativity decreases due to a decrease in the effective

nuclear charge.
→This decrease in the effective nuclear charge
accounts for the decrease in the ionization
energy and a small decrease in the electron affinity.

VI. METALLIC CHARACTER

Metallic Character is defined as a set of chemical properties that are associated with the elements
classified as metal in the periodic table.
valence electrons.
This character trends on the ability of an element to lose its
Generally:
Metals tend to lose electrons to form cations while non-metals have a tendency of gaining electrons
to form anions.
Metallic character can also be accounted for in terms of various physical properties such as:
 High density
High thermal conductivity

 High electrical conductivity
Shiny appearance( metallic lustre)

 Malleability

Periodic trend of metallic character

Metallic Character decrease across the period from left to right.
Reason:Because the number of electrons in the valence shell increases.
Therefore: The tendency of atoms to gain electrons and fill the valence shell increases.
Metallic character increases down the group,from top to bottom,because when moving down
the group,the number of shells increases,resulting in less attraction between the nucleus and
valence electrons.
Capacity to lose electrons increases.
 VIl:TRENDS IN MELTING AND BOILING POINTS
Melting point is the temperature required to break bonds and change the physical state from
solid to liquid.
The stronger the bonds,the higher the melting point.
The trend in the melting point across the period in the periodic table is not consistent.
Generally:Metals have high melting points compared to non-metals.
Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a substance is equal to the
atmospheric pressure.
The trend is closely related to that of melting point.
 Generally:
The melting point increases from Na to Si and decreases
from Al to Ar.
The boiling point increases from Na to Al, then decreases to Ar.
The Period 3:
Silicon is a metalloid (Non-metallic &metallic).
·Has strong covalent bonding,where by each silicon is bonded to four other silicon atoms.