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Electrical Properties of Materials - Electronic conduction in solids

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 E NGINEERING P HYSICS
A L ECTURE N OTES BY

FACULTY, D EPARTMENT OF P HYSICS , ATMECE

2
Contents

1 Electrical properties of materials 3

1.1 Classical free electron theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Assumptions and free electron concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Expression for electrical conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.4 Mobility of conduction electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.5 Failures of classical free electron theory of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Quantum free electron theory of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Fermi energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Density of States (DoS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Fermi–Dirac distribution and Fermi factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.5 Dependence of Fermi factor on energy and temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.6 Fermi velocity, Fermi temperature and Effective mass of free electrons . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Expression for electrical conductivity using QFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.1 Success of quantum free electron theory of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 Semiconductors 11
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Significance of Fermi level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Carrier Concentration in intrinsic semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.1 Expression for Electron concentration (Ne ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3.2 Expression for Hole concentration (Ne ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.3 Law of mass action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Expression for electrical conductivity in semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Superconductivity 15
3.1 Variation of resistivity of a conductor with temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3 Meissner Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.4 Critical Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5 Type-I and Type-II superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5.1 Type-I superconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.5.2 Type-II superconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.6 BCS Theory of Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.7 High temperature superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.8 Applications of superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.8.1 MAGLEV Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.8.2 Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3
Module 2

1
Chapter 1

Electrical properties of materials

Objective The objective of this chapter is to un- 2. The motion of an electron is completely random.
derstand the electronic conduction in solids. Con- In the absence of electric field, number of elec-
ductors conduct electric current. The conductors un- trons crossing any cross section of a conductor
dergo joule heating during the flow of current. The in one direction is equal to number of electrons
origin of resistance of the material has to be under- crossing the same cross section in opposite di-
stood. The resistivity and conductivity of the mate- rection. Therefore net electric current is Zero.
rial are the characteristic properties of the conductors.
The experimental observations of electronic conduc- 3. The random motion of the electron is due to
tion have to be explained. Semiconductors are the thermal energy. Average thermal velocity (root
materials which have interesting electronic conduc- mean square velocity) of free electrons is given
tion properties are also studied in this chapter. Super- by
r
conductors are the most fascinating materials which 3kT
offer no resistance for the flow of current. The phe- c̄ = (1.1)
m
nomenon of super conductivity has to be understood
c̄=Average Velocity, k=Boltzman Constant,
clearly.
T=Absolute Temperature, m=mass of the elec-
tron.
1.1 Classical free electron theory
4. Electric current in the conductor is due to the
drift velocity acquired by the electrons in the
1.1.1 Assumptions and free electron concept
presence of the applied electric field.
In order to explain electrical conductivity in metals,
Lorentz and Drude put forward a theory called classi- 5. Electric field produced by lattice ions is assumed
cal free electron theory of metals. Atoms in a metal to be uniform throughout the metal.
are closely packed so that their valence levels over-
lap. Hence electrons find continuity from one atom to 6. The force of repulsion between the electrons and
another. Thus electrons exhibit random motion and force of attraction between electrons and lattice
can move in any direction. The valence electrons in ions is neglected.
a metal belong to the crystal and hence the ions are
left behind at lattice sites called lattice ions. Further 1.1.2 Definitions
the classical theory is based on the following assump-
tions. Drift velocity (vd ) : The Average velocity acquired
by the electrons in the direction opposite to the
1. Free electrons in a metal resemble molecules of applied electric field is called drift velocity. It
a gas. Therefore, Laws of kinetic theory of gases is denoted by vd . The drift velocity is given by
are applicable to free electrons also. Thus free vd = eEτ m . Here e is the electronic charge, E
electrons can be assigned with “average velocity is the strength of the applied electric field, τ is
(c̄)”, “Mean free path (λ)” and “mean collision the relaxation time and m is the rest mass of the
time (τ)”. electron.

3
Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

Relaxation time (τR ) : It is the time required for the 1.1.4 Mobility of conduction electrons
drift velocity to reduce e1 times the drift velocity
It is found that the drift velocity depends on the
at the time of switch off of the electric field. if v0
applied field strength and is mathematically given by
is the drift velocity at the time of switch off of the
vd = µE. Here µ is called the mobility of the free
electric field, then the variation of drift velocity

−t
 electrons. It is defined as the drift velocity acquired
as a function of time is given by vd = v0 e τR
by the conduction electrons per unit field strength.
The mobility and conductivity of conduction elec-
Mean collision time (τ) : It is the average time
trons are related by the equation
elapsed between the two successive collisions of
free electrons with lattice ions in a metal. The σ 1
µ= = m2V −1 s−1 (1.6)
mean collision time and relaxation time are re- ne ρne
τ
lated by the equation τR = 1−<cos(θ)> . Here θ is
The mobility is also given by
the scattering angle of the conduction electrons.
vd eτ
Mean free path (λ) : It is the average distance trav- µ= = (1.7)
E m
eled by the free electrons between two succes-
sive collisions in a metal. It is given by the equa- 1.1.5 Failures of classical free electron the-
tion λ = c̄τ. ory of metals
Classical free electron theory of metal is success-
1.1.3 Expression for electrical conductivity ful in explaining the certain experimentally observed
Based on the classical free electron theory of met- facts of electronic conduction in solids and thermal
als an expression is derived for the electrical con- conductivity. This theory fails to explain certain other
ductivity of metals using the equations J = σE and experimental observations. The following are the fail-
I = neAvd . Here σ is the electrical conductivity, n is ures of classical free electron theory of metals.
the number density of electrons, A is the area of cross
section of the conductor, J is the current density, E is Electronic specific heat of solids
the applied electric field strength and I is the strength
When heat is supplied to metals free electrons also
of the electric current. The expression for electrical
absorb energy. Thus free electrons also contribute to
conductivity is given by
the specific heat of solids. This is called electronic
ne2 τ −1 specific heat. According to classical electron theory
σ= Ω m (1.2)
m of metals energy of all the electrons in one-kilo mole
λ
substituting for τ = c̄
of a metal is given by

ne2 λ 3
σ= (1.3) E= RT (1.8)
m c̄ 2
substituting for c̄ from equation 1.1, The specific heat is given by differentiating equation
1.8 with respect to temperature T
ne2 λ
σ=√ (1.4) 3
3kmT Cv = R (1.9)
2
The free electron concentration or number density of
free electrons n can be calculated using the density of The value of specific heat calculated as per the
the material D and the molecular weight of the mate- above equation by substituting the value of R as
rial A. It is given by the following equation. 8.31Jmole−1 K −1 we get Cv = 12.5Jmole−1 K −1 .
N N A D −3
n= m (1.5)
A The experimental value of electronic specific heat
Here N is the number of free electrons per atom in is Cv = 10−4 RT. It is very small and also temperature
metal, N A is the Avogadro number per kmole, D is dependent when compared to theoretical predictions
density of the material in kgm−3 and A is the molec- as per classical free electron theory. Hence it fails to
ular weight of the material. explain the electronic specific heat of solids.

Dept. of Physics 4 A T M E College of Engg.

Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

Dependence of σ on temperature 2. Thus in a metal there exists large number of

closely spaced energy levels for free electrons
According to classical free electron theory of met- which form a band.
als the electrical conductivity σ is inversely
√ propor-
tional to square root of temperature ( T ). But ex-
3. The distribution of free electrons in the energy
periments reveal that electrical conductivity (σ) is
levels is as per the Pauli’s exclusion principle.
inversely proportional to temperature (T ). Thus the
Only a maximum of two electrons can occupy
theoretical predictions contradict experimental obser-
a given an energy level. This also suggests the
vations. Hence classical free electron theory fails to
availability of two energy states for free elec-
explain dependence of electrical conductivity (σ) on
trons in an energy level corresponding to spin up
the temperature (T ).
and spin down states.

Mathematically, as per classical free electron the- 4. The potential setup by the lattice ions is assumed
ory σ ∝ √1 , but experimentally σ ∝ T1 . to be constant throughout the metal.
T

5. The mutual repulsion between electrons and the

Dependence of σ on n, the number density
attraction between electrons and lattice ions are
The theory predicts the direct dependence of elec- neglected.
trical conductivity (σ) on number of free electrons
per unit volume (n) called number density. But exper-
iments have revealed different with σCu > σ Al even 1.2.2 Fermi energy
though the the number densities nCu < n Al . This Consider a metal containing N number of atoms.
contradicts theoretical predictions. Hence it fails to Thus there exists N number of energy levels in each
explain the dependence of electrical conductivity σ band. These energy levels are very closely spaced.
on the number free electrons per unit volume n. The The filling up of energy levels in bands occur as per
experimental observations are as shown in the below Pauli’s exclusion principle and thus each level can ac-
table. commodate a pair of electrons with spin up and spin
down. Thus electrons in a metal start filling up the
Metal σ(Ω−1 m−1 ) n(m−3 ) available energy levels from the lower most level of
Copper 5.88 × 107 8.45 × 1028 the lower most band. All bands below the valence
Aluminium 3.65 × 107 18.06 × 1028 band are completely filled. The valence band is par-
tially filled. The highest filled energy level in a
metal at absolute zero by free electrons is called
1.2 Quantum free electron theory of Fermi Level and the corresponding energy is called
metals Fermi Energy (EF ). Thus, at absolute zero and with
no electric field applied, all levels below Fermi level
The failures of classical free electron theory led to are completely filled and above Fermi level are empty.
the rise of Quantum Free electron theory and was pro-
posed by Sommerfield in the year 1928. The quantum
free electron theory is based on the following assump-
tions.

1.2.1 Assumptions
1. Unlike classical free electron theory, in quantum
free electron theory, energy values of free elec-
trons are quantized. The energy values of free Figure 1.1: Energy Band diagram and Fermi Energy
electrons are discrete since their motion is con-
fined within the boundaries of the metal.

Dept. of Physics 5 A T M E College of Engg.

Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

1.2.3 Density of States (DoS) level with energy (E) at a given temperature T under
thermal equilibrium. Thus the probability of occupa-
According to band theory of solids the number of
tion is a function of Energy (E) and Temperature (T ).
energy levels in a band is equal to the number of
Thus the probability of occupation of an energy level
atoms present in the solid. Out of all bands the va-
of energy (E) at temperature (T ) under thermal equi-
lence band is of most concern. The spacing between
librium is evaluated using an expression called Fermi
any two energy levels in an energy band is not a con-
Factor.
stant quantity. The density of levels in a band in- 1
f (E) =  E −E f  (1.11)
creases with increase in energy hence it depends on
the energy value itself. Each level can accommodate e kT
+1
two electrons with opposite spins. Hence an energy
The number density of electrons defined as the
level supports two states for electron occupation.
number of free electrons per unit volume the material
in the energy range E and E + dE in the valence band
The Density of States is defined as the number of the material is given by n(E)dE. Mathematically
of energy states available per unit volume of the
material in the unit energy range in the valence n(E)dE = g(E)dE f (E) (1.12)
band of the material. It is mathematically a con-
tinuous function denoted by g(E). Consider a very Here f (E) is the Fermi factor.
small energy range dE centered around E such that
the density around E remains constant. The number The number density of electrons is the product of
of energy levels in the energy range E and E + dE per the number of available energy states and their oc-
unit volume of the material is given by g(E)dE. The cupation probability. This is called Fermi-Dirac dis-
variation of g(E)dE as a function of E is given by tribution. As per this rule at temperature absolute
√ zero all levels below the Fermi level are completely
8 2πm3/2 + − 1 filled and above the Fermi level are empty. At higher
g(E)dE = * E 2 dE (1.10)
h 3 temperatures the probability of occupation of energy
levels above the Fermi level increases and below the
, -
Fermi level decreases due to the increase in thermal
energy of the valence electrons.

1.2.5 Dependence of Fermi factor on energy

and temperature
As described, the Fermi factor is a function of energy
and temperature. This dependence could be explained
for energy levels below and above Fermi level at ab-
Figure 1.2: Density of states function vs Energy solute zero and higher temperatures.

Probability of occupation of levels with energy E <

EF and at T = 0K
1.2.4 Fermi–Dirac distribution and Fermi
factor The Fermi factor or Fermi function is given by

In a metal there are large number of electrons. The 1

f (E) =  E −E  (1.13)
occupation of energy levels in the valence band is ac- f

cording to Pauli’s exclusion principle. This distribu- e kT

+1
tion of electrons is not random. It follows a certain Here E − E f is negative. Substituting the value for
universal rule of distribution called Fermi-Dirac Dis- T =0
tribution. This statistics is applicable for the distribu-
1
tion of particles of spin half. A distribution statistics f (E) =  E −E 
f
provides the probability of occupation of an energy e k∗0
+1

Dept. of Physics 6 A T M E College of Engg.

Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

1 1
f (E) = =
e−∞ +1 0+0
There fore f (E) = 1. Hence, at T = 0K, all energy
levels below the Fermi level are completely filled.

Probability of occupation of levels with energy E >

EF and at T = 0K

The Fermi factor or fermi function is given by

1 Figure 1.3: Variation of f (E) as a function of Tem-

f (E) =  E −E  (1.14)
f perature and Energy
e kT
+1

Here E − E f is positive. Substituting the value for

T =0 Variation of number density of e− with tempera-
ture
1
f (E) =  E −E 
f
As per Fermi-Dirac statistics the number density of
e k∗0
+1 electrons in the energy range E and E + dE is given
by
1 1 n(E)dE = g(E)dE f (E) (1.19)
f (E) = =
e∞ +1 ∞+1 Graphically The distribution of free electrons in a
There fore f (E) = 0. Hence, at T = 0K, all energy metal at various temperatures and energy levels is as
levels above the Fermi level are empty. shown in the graph 1.5.

Probability of occupation of levels with energy E =

EF and at T > 0K

The Fermi factor or Fermi function is given by

1
f (E) =  E −E 
f
(1.15)
e kT
+1
Figure 1.4: Fermi-Dirac Distribution of Conduction
Here E − E f = 0. Substituting the values
Electrons
1
f (E) = 
0
 (1.16)
e kT +1
1.2.6 Fermi velocity, Fermi temperature and
1 Effective mass of free electrons
f (E) = 
0
 (1.17)
e kT +1 Fermi velocity
The velocity of the conduction electron when its
1 1
f (E) = = = 0.5 (1.18) energy is equal to Fermi energy is called Fermi ve-
1+1 2
locity.
Thus for all temperatures above 0 K the probability 1
EF = mvF 2
of occupation of Fermi level is ½. Thus the variation 2
of Fermi factor with temperature is as shown in the
r
2EF
graph 1.3 vF = (1.20)
m

Dept. of Physics 7 A T M E College of Engg.

Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

Fermi Temperature When a static electric field of strength E is applied to

a filled fermi sphere, the equation of motion of each
It is the temperature at which the average thermal
free electron could be written as
energy of the free electron in a metal is equal to Fermi " #
energy at 0 K. The thermal energy of the electron dk
~ = Ee (1.23)
is given by E = kT, here k is Boltzmann constant. dt
Hence Fermi temperature is given by the equation.
Thus fermi sphere will be in motion at a constant rate
EF in k-space in the absence of collision. Integrating the
TF = (1.21)
k equation 1.23 between the limits 0 to τ we get
The Fermi energy of copper is 7eV . The calcu-
" #
eEτ
lation of Fermi temperature for copper is as shown k (t) − k (0) =
~
below
7 × 1.6 × 10−19
TF =
1.38 × 10−23
TF = 81159K
This is temperature cannot be realized in practice.
Thus the Fermi temperature is a theoretical concept.

Effective mass of free electron

Free electrons in a metal will be in drift motion due
to the applied electric field. Thus the motion of free
electrons in a metal is actually influenced by applied
electric field and the periodic potential well. Hence
mass of the electron is different from its rest mass Figure 1.5: k-space
and is called Effective mass. The effective mass of
the electron is denoted by m∗ .
at time t = 0 fermi sphere is centered at the origin
of k-space, hence we have
1.3 Expression for electrical conduc-
tivity using QFT λF
τ = τF = (1.24)
vF
As per classical free electron theory the velocity of
thus the sphere moves to a new center at
the free electrons executing random motion could be
represented in velocity space by a sphere of radius vF , eEλ F
the fermi velocity. The surface of the sphere is known Mk= (1.25)
~vF
as fermi [Link] terminal point of velocity vector
of each electron at a given instant is represented by A steady current ultimately reached as a result of col-
a point inside the sphere. Since the motion of free lisions which would tend to restore the displaced sur-
electrons is random all vectors cancel out and the net face and is given by
velocity is zero. " #
ne~ M k
J= = σE
m∗
The electrical conductivity of the material is pro-
portional to the fermi surface. More the fermi surface substituting for M k from equation 1.25 we gets
area more will be conductivity. (insulators posses " #
zero fermi surface area). Quantum mechanically the ne~ eEλ F
= σE
velocity of the free electron is given by the equation m∗ ~vF

ne2 λ F
" #
~k
v= (1.22) σ= (1.26)
m m∗ vF

Dept. of Physics 8 A T M E College of Engg.

Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

The above equation 1.27 is for free electron approx- λ ∝ T1 . Hence the electrical conductivity σ ∝ T1 and
imation, for band approximation and using equation is in agreement with experimental observations.
1.24 we get
Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron
ne2 τF concentration
σ= (1.27)
m∗
The dependence of σ on n is not direct. In fact, σ
Thus the equation for electrcial conductivity as per
depends on other quantities like vλF and m∗ . Thus all
quantum fre electron theory.
the three quantities n,σ and m∗ contribute for σ. The
comparison is as shown in the below table.
1.3.1 Success of quantum free electron the-
ory of metals
λ
Metal n vF m∗
The quantum free electron theory of metals is
3.73 vλF

Copper nCu 1.08 m∗ Cu
successful in explaining the certain experimentally λ
  Al
oberved facts which the classical free electron theory Aluminium 2.13 nCu vF m∗ Cu
Al
failed to explain. These are the merits of QFT.
Hence there is no direct relationship between electri-
cal conductivity (σ) and number density (n).
Specific heat of solids
Unlike Classical free electron theory, the quantum Model Questions
free electrons theory states that not all free electrons
in a metal absorb thermal energy. Only those free 1. Define the terms mean free path, mean collision
electrons in the energy levels close to Fermi level ab- time, relaxation time, drift velocity and mobility
sorb thermal energy. Hence only a small percentage of free electrons in a metal.
of the free electrons participate in thermal conductiv-
ity. Thus the specific heat of metals is very small and 2. Discuss the failures of classical free electron the-
thus conforms the experimental observations. Hence ory of metals.
the specific heat CV = 10−4 RT.
3. Give the assumptions on which quantum free
electron theory is based/
Temperature dependence of electrical conductiv-
ity 4. Describe Fermi level and Fermi energy.

Classical free electron theory predicts σ ∝ √1 . Ex- 5. Explain the density of states and mention density
T
periments reveal the fact σ ∝ T1 . As per Quantum free of states function.
electron theory of metals the electrical conductivity is 6. Write a note of Fermi function and Fermi-Dirac
given by distribution statistics.
ne2 λ
σ= ∗ 7. Explain the variation of Fermi factor with energy
m vF
and temperature.
It is understood that Fermi velocity is independent of
temperature and also the electronic charge. Hence the 8. Derive an expression for electrical conductivity
electrical conductivity depends on λ, n and effective using quantum free electron theory of metals.
mass (m∗ ).
9. Write a note on Fermi velocity, Fermi tempera-
ture and effective mass.
As the temperature increases the amplitude of lat-
tice vibration increases. If r is the amplitude of vi- 10. Describe the success of quantum free electron
bration then πr 2 is the area which can influence the theory of metals.
scattering of the free electrons. Thus as T increases r
increases and so the πr 2 . Thus the collision frequency
increases which decreases the mean free path λ. Thus

Dept. of Physics 9 A T M E College of Engg.

Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

Dept. of Physics 10 A T M E College of Engg.

Chapter 2

Semiconductors

2.1 Introduction n-type and between valence band and acceptor level
in p-type. Fermi level depends on temperature. Fermi
Semiconductors are the materials which posses level changes with temperature.
negative temperature co-efficient of resistance. Their
electrical properties are different from that conduc-
tors and insulators. The pure form of semiconduc-
tors are known as intrinsic semiconductors. The con-
2.3 Carrier Concentration in intrin-
ductivity in intrinsic semiconductors is due to both sic semiconductors
the motion of electrons in the conduction band and
the motion of holes in the valence band. The elec- Intrinsic semiconductor is the pure form of semi-
trons in the valence band of intrinsic semiconductors conductor. When sufficient energy is supplied to elec-
need more energy to move to conduction band. This trons in the valence band they absorb energy and
energy could be reduced by doping a pure semicon- move to conduction band leaving behind a hole. Thus
ductor with certain impurities. The process of adding the number of electrons in the conduction band is
impurity is called doping. Such semiconductors are equal to number of holes in the valence band. The
called extrinsic semiconductors. Based on the type of total number of electrons in the valence band per unit
dopant extrinsic semiconductors are classified into n- volume of the material is known as electron concen-
type semiconductors and p-type semiconductors. The tration. Similarly number of holes in the valance band
conductivity of extrinsic semiconductors is due to the per unit volume is known as hole concentration. The
motion of majority charge carries. total number of charge carriers per unit volume in the
semiconductor is called carrier concentration.
Doping of pentavalent impurity results in the fifth
electron which does not participate in bonding and
loosely bound to the impurity atom. The energy of 2.3.1 Expression for Electron concentration
this electron lies in the energy gap of semiconductor. (Ne )
Electrons are the majority charge carriers in n-type
The following equation 2.1 determines the electron
semiconductors. Thus donor level is created. Simi-
concentration in intrinsic semiconductors.
larly doping of trivalent impurity atoms results in the
formation of holes which occupy the acceptor level. √ 
E F −E g

4 2 3
Ne = 3 (πme kT ) e
∗ 2 kT
(2.1)
h
2.2 Significance of Fermi level
Here
In case of intrinsic semiconductors, electrons are h is Planck’s constant
most probably found either in conduction band or in me∗ is the effective mass of the electron
valence band. Thus the average energy of the electron k is Boltzmann constant
lies at the center of the energy gap called Fermi en- T is absolute temperature
ergy. In case of extrinsic semiconductor the Fermi en- EF is Fermi energy
ergy lies between conduction level and donor level for Eg is the energy gap of the semiconductor.

11
Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

2.3.2 Expression for Hole concentration (Ne ) 2.4 Expression for electrical conduc-
The following equation 2.2 determines the electron tivity in semiconductors
concentration in intrinsic semiconductors.
The conductivity in semiconductors is due two
√
4 2 3
 −E 
F kinds of charge carries electrons and holes. Let us
Nh = 3 (πmh kT ) e kT
∗ 2 (2.2) calculate the contribution of electrons for conduction.
h
Here Consider a semiconductor of area of cross section
h is Planck’s constant A and carrying current I. Let us assume that the cur-
mh∗ is the effective mass of the electron rent is only due to electrons. let v be the drift velocity
k is Boltzmann constant of the electrons. Let Ne is the electron concentration.
T is absolute temperature The current through the semi conductor is given by
EF is Fermi energy q
Eg is the energy gap of the semiconductor. I=
T
Here q is the amount of charge crossing the given
2.3.3 Law of mass action cross section in T second.
The expressions for electron and hole concentra-
In unit time the distance traveled (l) by the electron
tions are given by equations 2.1 and 2.2
will be numerically equal to drift velocity (v). Thus
√ 
E F −E g
 the number of electrons in the volume swept by the
4 2 3
Ne = 3 (πme kT ) e
∗ 2 kT
(2.3) electrons is the rate of flow of charge. The volume
h
swept by the electrons is given by Av. Since e is the
√ charge on electron then, rate of flow of charge is given
4 2 3
 −E 
F
Nh = 3 (πmh∗ kT ) 2 e kT (2.4) by
h
I = Ne eAv (2.8)
Both electron concentration and hole concentration we know that the expression for the current density
depend on the fermi energy EF . The product of the is given by j = AI . Thus the expression for current
equations 2.1 and 2.2 remains constant and is given density is given by
below
j = Ne ev (2.9)

−E g
 The drift velocity v is related to the mobility of the
32 3
electrons by the equation v = µe E. Here µe is the
Ne Nh = 6 (πkT ) 3 (me∗ mh∗ ) 2 e kT
(2.5)
h mobility of electrons in semiconductor. E is the ap-
plied electric field strength. Thus substituting for v in
Since for a given conductor Eg is a constant we equation 2.9 we get
have
Ne Nh = Constant (2.6) j = Ne eµe E (2.10)
The above condition is applicable to both intrinsic It is also known that
semiconductors. Equation 2.6 is the law of mass ac- j = σe E (2.11)
tion of semiconductors. The law of mass action states
“for a semiconductor the product of the electron and Here σe conductivity due to electrons. Comparing
hole concentration remains constant at a given tem- equations 2.10 and 2.11 we get
perature even if the doping concentration is varied”. σe = Ne eµe (2.12)
Since for a given semiconductor Eg is a constant the Extending the same treatment for the conduction of
Law of mass action could also be written as holes we get an expression for electrical conductivity
due to holes as
Ne Nh = ni 2 (2.7) σh = Nh eµh (2.13)
here ni is intrinsic charge carrier concentration. Here µh is the mobility of holes.

Dept. of Physics 12 A T M E College of Engg.

Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

Thus the electrical conductivity of the semiconduc-

tor σ is given
σ = σ e + σh

σ = Ne eµe + Nh eµh

σ = e(Ne µe + Nh µh ) (2.14)
The equation 2.14 determines the electrical conduc-
tivity of semiconductors in general.

For an intrinsic semiconductors, we know that

Ne = Nh = ni . Thus the expressions for electrical
conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is given by

σ = ni e(µe + µh ) (2.15)
Thus the expression for electrical conductivity in ex-
trinsic and intrinsic semiconductors.

Model Questions
1. Explain the significance of Fermi level in intrin-
sic and extrinsic semiconductors.

2. Write a note on carrier concentration in semicon-

ductors.

3. Derive and expression for electrical conductivity

in intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

Dept. of Physics 13 A T M E College of Engg.

Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

Dept. of Physics 14 A T M E College of Engg.

Chapter 3

Superconductivity

3.1 Variation of resistivity of a con- variation of electrical resistance of Mercury at very

ductor with temperature low temperature as a function of temperature. It was
found that resistance of Mercury decreases with tem-
The variation of resistivity with temperature for a perature initially up to a particular temperature TC =
metal is as shown in the fig. Resistivity in case of pure 4.15K. Below this temperature the resistance of mer-
metal decreases with decrease in temperature and be- cury abruptly drops to zero. Between 4.15K and 0K
comes zero at absolute zero temperature. While in Mercury offered practically no resistance for the flow
case of impure metals the resistivity of metal will of electric current. The phenomenon is reversible and
have some residual value even at absolute zero tem- material becomes normal once again when tempera-
perature. This residual resistance depends only on the ture was increased above 4.15K. This phenomenon is
amount of impurity present in the metal and is inde- called Superconductivity and the material is a Super-
pendent of the temperature. Thus net Resistivity of a conductor.
metal is given by the equation 3.1 called Mathiessen’s
rule. Thus net Resistivity of conductor is equal to sum Thus the phenomenon of super conductivity is de-
temperature independent part and temperature depen- fined as “The phenomenon in which resistance of
dent part as shown in the graph. certain metals, alloys and compounds drops to zero
abruptly, below a certain temperature is called su-
ρ = ρ0 + ρ (T ) (3.1)
perconductivity”.

The temperature, below which materials exhibit su-

perconducting property is called critical temperature
and is denoted by TC . Critical temperature TC is dif-
ferent for different substances. The materials, which
exhibit superconducting property, are called super-
conductors. Above critical temperature material is
said to be in normal state and offers resistance for the
flow of electric current. Below the critical tempera-
ture material is said to be in superconducting state.
Thus TC is also called as transition temperature. Crit-
Figure 3.1: Variation of resistivity of metals with
ical temperature is different for different metals.
Temperature

3.3 Meissner Effect

3.2 Superconductivity Two scientists Meissener and Ochsenfeld studied
the effect of magnetic field on the superconductors in
This phenomenon was discovered by Lord Kamer- the year 1933. “The phenomenon in which the mag-
lingh Onnes in the year 1911. He was studying the netic fields are completely expelled from the interior

15
Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

of the material during the transition from normal if the strength of the magnetic field is further in-
conducting state to super conducting state is known creased, it was found that for a particular value of
as Meissner Effect”. Thus the magnetic flux density the magnetic field, material looses its superconduct-
inside the superconductor is zero. Hence the super- ing property and becomes a normal conductor. The
conductor behaves like a perfect diamagnet. value of the magnetic field at which material makes a
transition from superconducting state to normal con-
When superconducting transition takes place in the ducting state is called the Critical magnetic field, de-
presence of magnetic field current loops are induced noted by Hc .
(Lenz’s law in atomic scale) in the superconductors
which nullifies the applied field. The possession of
zero resistance and perfect diamagnetism are the two
important properties of a super conductor. The Meiss-
ner effect is pictorially represented as shown in the
figure 3.3

Figure 3.3: Variation of critical Field with tempera-

ture

It is found that by reducing the temperature of the

material further superconducting property of the ma-
Figure 3.2: Meissner Effect terial could be restored. Thus, critical field does not
destroy the superconducting property of the material
completely but only reduces the critical temperature
of the material. The critical magnetic field at any tem-
Hence at temperatures T < TC the magnetic flux perature below the critical temperature is given by the
density inside the superconductor B = 0. According equation 3.3. Below the critical temperature the criti-
to the theory of magnetism cal field depends on temperature.

T2
!
B = µ0 (M + H) (3.2) HC (T ) = HC 1 − 2 (3.3)
TC
Here M is intensity of magnetization developed in the
material and H is the applied magnetic field strength 3.5 Type-I and Type-II supercon-
and µ0 is permeability of free space.
ductors
0 = µ0 (M + H)
Superconductors are classified into two types Type-
hence M = −H which indicates the induced mag- I and Type-II superconductors based on the Meissner
netism is apposite to the applied magnetic field. effect. Pure metals and type-I superconductors and
ceramics are type-II superconductors.

3.4 Critical Field 3.5.1 Type-I superconductor

It is the nature of superconductors to exclude mag- Superconducting materials, which can withstand high
netic fields (Meissner effect) so long as the applied value of critical magnetic fields, are called Hard Su-
field does not exceed their critical magnetic field. But perconductors or Type-II superconductors.

Dept. of Physics 16 A T M E College of Engg.

Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

A super conductor which exhibits complete Meiss-

ner effect is called Type-I superconductor or soft su-
perconductor. The graph of magnetic moment as
a function of applied magnetic field strength is as
shown in the Fig. 3.4. As the field strength increases
material becomes more and more diamagnetic until
H becomes equal to Hc . At Hc , the material losses
both diamagnetic and superconducting properties to
become normal conductor. It allows magnetic flux to
Figure 3.5: formation of filaments in type-2 super-
penetrate through its body. The value of Hc is very
conductors
small for soft superconductors. Therefore soft su-
perconductors cannot withstand high magnetic fields.
Therefore they cannot be used for making supercon-
ducting magnets. spread in to the entire body, and material becomes
normal conductor as a whole. The value of Hc2 is
hundreds of times greater than Hc of soft supercon-
ductors. Therefore they are used for making powerful
superconducting magnets.

3.6 BCS Theory of Superconductiv-

ity
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer explained the phe-
Figure 3.4: Variation of magnetic moment with ap- nomenon of superconductivity in the year 1957. The
plied field strength essence of the BCS theory is as follows.

We know that resistance of the conductor is due

3.5.2 Type-II superconductor to the scattering of electrons from the lattice ions.
Consider an electron moving very close to a lattice
The graph of magnetic moment Vs magnetic field ion. Due to coulomb interaction between electron and
is as shown in the Fig. 3.4. Hard superconductors ion, the ion core gets distorted from its mean posi-
are characterised by two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2 . tion. It is called lattice distortion. Now another elec-
When applied magnetic field is less than Hc1 material tron moving close to this lattice ion interacts with it.
exhibits perfect diamagnetism. Beyond Hc1 flux pen- This results in the reduction in the energy of the elec-
etrates and fills the body partially. As the strength of tron. This interaction can be looked upon as equiva-
the field increases further, more and more flux fills the lent to the interaction between two electrons via lat-
body and thereby decreasing the diamagnetic prop- tice. During the interaction exchange of phonon takes
erty of the material. At Hc2 flux fills the body com- place between electron and the lattice. This interac-
pletely and material losses its diamagnetic property as tion is called electron-lattice –electron interaction via
well as superconducting property completely. the phonon field. Because of the reduction in energy
between the two electrons, an attractive force comes
Between Hc1 and Hc2 material is said to be in vor- into effect between two electrons. It was shown by
tex state. In this state though there is flux penetration, Cooper that, this attractive force becomes maximum
material exhibits superconducting property. Thus flux if two electrons have opposite spins and momentum.
penetration occurs through small-channelized regions The attractive force may exceed coulombs repulsive
called filaments. In filament region (Fig. 3.5) mate- force between the two electrons below the critical
rial is in normal state . As Hc2 the field strength in- temperature, which results in the formation of bound
creases width of the filament region increases at they pair of electrons called cooper pairs.

Dept. of Physics 17 A T M E College of Engg.

Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

At temperatures below the critical temperature 3.8 Applications of superconductiv-

large number of electron-lattice-electron interaction ity
takes place and all electrons form a cloud of cooper
pairs. Cooper pairs in turn move in a cohesive man- • Superconductivity is used in making supercon-
ner through the crystal, which results in an ordered ducting magnets to generate very high magnetic
state of the conduction electrons without any scatter- fields.
ing on the lattice ions. This results in a state of zero
resistance in the material. • Superconductivity is used in making Su-
perconducting Quantum Interference Devices
(SQUIDS).
3.7 High temperature superconduc-
tors • Superconductivity is used in Magnetically Levi-
tated Vehicles (MAGLEV Vehicles).
Superconducting materials, which exhibit super-
conducting property at higher temperatures, are called
3.8.1 MAGLEV Vehicle
high temperature superconductors.
Principle
Ceramic materials are expected to be insulators
MAGLEV vehicles are based on the principle of
but certainly not superconductors. But the scientists
Magnetic Levitation. Magnetic Levitation is the enor-
Georg Bednorz and Alex Muller found superconduc-
mous repulsion between two highly powerful mag-
tivity in ceramics when they studied the conductivity
netic fields. It is used to minimize and eliminate fric-
of a lanthanum-barium-copper oxide ceramic in 1986.
tion between two surfaces in relative motion. This
Its critical temperature of 30 K was the highest which
also results in minimization of power utilized and
had been measured to date, but their discovery started
noise.
a surge of activity which discovered superconducting
behavior as high as 125 K.

In 1987 scientists developed a compound which is

an oxide of the form YBa2Cu3O7 (YBOC), often re-
ferred to as 1-2-3 compound having TC = 92K was
discovered. All high temperature superconductors are
oxides of copper, and bear a particular type of crys-
tal structure called Perovskite crystal structure. Such
crystal structures are characterized by large number
of copper-oxygen layers. It was found that addition
of extra copper-oxygen layer pushes the critical tem- Figure 3.6: Sectional view of MAGLEV vehicle
perature TC to higher values. It was also found that
formation of super currents in high superconductors
is direction dependent. The super currents are strong
in the copper-oxygen layer and weak in the direc- 3.8.2 Working
tion perpendicular to the planes. The following table
shows some high temperature superconductors. Cross sectional view of a MAGLEV vehicle is as
shown in the Fig.3.6. The system uses direct current
Ceramic Material Critical Temperature superconducting magnets fixed under the carriage,
La2−X Ba X CuO4 30 K which in turn induce eddy currents in the aluminium
La2−X Sr X CuO4 38 K guide way. Eddy currents in the guide way generate
La2−X Sr X CaCuO4 60 K repulsive force, which pushes the carriage up. Then
Y Ba2Cu3 O7 93 K forward motion of the vehicle is achieved by the prin-
Bi 2 Sr 2Ca2Cu3 O10 109 K ciple of synchronous linear induction. The supercon-
Tl 2 Sr 2Ca2Cu3 O10 125 K ducting magnets and the cryogenic system for cooling

Dept. of Physics 18 A T M E College of Engg.

 Lecture Notes Engineering Physics

the magnet are mounted below the carriage isolating

them from the passenger compartment.

Model Questions
1. Describe the variation of resistivity of a conduc-
tor with temperature.

2. State and Explain Mathiessen’s rule.

3. State and Explain Meissner Effect.

4. Write a note on critical field.

5. Explain Type-1 and Type-2 superconductors

with examples.

6. Explain the BCS theory of superconductivity.

7. Write a note on high temperature superconduc-

tivity.

8. Write a note on MAGLEV vehicles.

Dept. of Physics 19 A T M E College of Engg.

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