ACN FIRST UNIT

Unit - I Internet Architecture and Network

Layer

1.1 Structure of Internet, Intranet, Role of Internet Service

Provider (ISP) and Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers (ICANN)

1.2 IPv4-Header format, IPv6 -Header format

1.3 Subnet, subnet addressing and address masking,

supernetting

1.4 Address Mapping- Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) -

Mapping logical to physical addresses, working and message
format , Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) –
Mapping physical to logical addresses working and message
format
 1.1 Structure of Internet, Intranet, Role of Internet Service
Provider (ISP) and Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers (ICANN)

In the field of network and information technology, there

are the terms “Internet” and “Intranet” which are used
interchangeably but have different meanings.

What is the Internet?

The Internet is used to connect the different networks of
computers simultaneously. It is a public network therefore
anyone can access the internet. On the internet, there are
multiple users and it provides unlimited information to
the users.

What is an Intranet?
Intranet is the type of internet that is used privately. It is a
Types of network private network therefore anyone can't access the
intranet. On the intranet, there is a limited number of
users and it provides a piece of limited information to its
users.
what exactly is difference between Internet and
Intranet?
 Role of Internet Service Provider (ISP)

ISP stands for Internet Service Provider. An Internet Service Provider

(ISP) is an organization that provides internet access to individuals,
businesses and other organizations. They connect us to the internet,
either through wired connections (like fiber or cable) or wireless
methods (like Wi-Fi or mobile data).
Different Types of ISP Connections
DSL
Wi-Fi broadband
Mobile broadband
Fiber optic broadband
Cable broadband
What do ISPs do?
ISPs (Internet Service Providers) provide access to the internet and
various related services. Their main functions include:
Internet Access – Connect users to the internet via DSL, fiber optic,
cable, or wireless connections.
Web Hosting – Offer hosting services for websites.
Email Services – Provide email accounts for communication.
Online Security – Offer antivirus, firewalls, and spam protection.
Technical Support – Help users troubleshoot internet-related issues.
Domain Registration – Allow customers to register and manage
domain names.
Bundled Services – Provide internet along with TV, phone, and
streaming packages.
Advantages:
Provides internet access to homes, businesses,
and institutions.
Offers technical support and customer
service.
Includes additional services like email,
hosting, and security tools.
Offers various data and speed plans to suit
different user needs.
Easily available locally with simple setup and
support.

Disadvantages:
Prone to service outages due to technical or
external issues.
May throttle speed or offer limited
bandwidth in lower plans.
Can track and monitor user activity, raising
privacy concerns.
Limited choices in some areas, reducing
competition.
May impose data caps and charge extra for
excess usage.
 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

is a global multistakeholder group and nonprofit organization
headquartered in the United States. It is responsible for coordinating
the maintenance and procedures of several databases related to the
namespaces and numerical spaces of the Internet, ensuring the
Internet's stable and secure operation. ICANN helps coordinate the
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) functions, which are
key technical services critical to the continued operations of the
Internet's underlying address book, the Domain Name System (DNS).
Advantages:
Manages global IP address and domain name allocation.
Ensures stable and secure DNS operation.
Promotes fair and decentralized governance with global stakeholders.
Supports domain name accessibility through registrars.
Maintains transparency in policy development and decision-making.

Disadvantages:
Complex structure can delay decision-making.
Has limited enforcement authority over individual users or domain issues.
Faces criticism for being US-based and lacking full international neutrality.
Domain registration and renewal can be expensive.
Domain dispute resolution processes can be long and difficult.
🔑 Key Roles of ICANN:
Domain Name System (DNS) Management:
Oversees the hierarchical naming system of websites (e.g., .com, .org, .in).
Coordinates top-level domains (TLDs).

IP Address Allocation:
Delegates blocks of IP addresses to Regional Internet Registries (RIRs), who then
assign them to ISPs or organizations.

Accrediting Domain Registrars:

Authorizes companies (like GoDaddy, Namecheap) to sell domain names.
Ensures fair and transparent domain registration.

Root Zone Management:

Maintains the database of root servers which are at the top of the DNS hierarchy.
Without this, DNS lookups wouldn't function globally.

Policy Development:
Creates and enforces policies for Internet naming and addressing.
Works with global stakeholders (governments, tech companies, users).
 1.2 IPv4-Header format, IPv6 -Header format

IPv4 is a connectionless protocol used for packet-switched networks.

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the fourth revision of the
Internet Protocol and a widely used protocol in data communication
over different kinds of networks. IPv4 is a connectionless protocol
used in packet-switched layer networks, such as Ethernet. It provides a
logical connection between network devices by providing
identification for each device.
Characteristics of IPv4
IPv4 could be a 32-Bit IP Address.
IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.
The number of header fields is twelve and the length of the header field is
twenty.
It has Unicast, broadcast, and multicast style of addresses.
IPv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask).
IPv4 uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to the MAC address.
RIP may be a routing protocol supported by the routed daemon.
Networks ought to be designed either manually or with DHCP.
Packet fragmentation permits from routers and causing host.
 IPv4 Datagram Header

VERSION: Version of the IP protocol (4 bits), which is 4 for IPv4

HLEN: IP header length (4 bits), which is the number of 32 bit words in the header.
The minimum value for this field is 5 and the maximum is 15.
Type of service: Low Delay, High Throughput, Reliability (8 bits)
Total Length: Length of header + Data (16 bits), which has a minimum value 20 bytes
and the maximum is 65,535 bytes.
Identification: Unique Packet Id for identifying the group of fragments of a single IP
datagram (16 bits)
Flags: 3 flags of 1 bit each : reserved bit (must be zero), do not fragment flag, more
fragments flag (same order)
Fragment Offset: Represents the number of Data Bytes ahead of the particular
fragment in the particular Datagram. Specified in terms of number of 8 bytes, which
has the maximum value of 65,528 bytes.
Time to live: Datagram’s lifetime (8 bits), It prevents the datagram to loop through
the network by restricting the number of Hops taken by a Packet before delivering to
the Destination.
Protocol: Name of the protocol to which the data is to be passed (8 bits)
Header Checksum: 16 bits header checksum for checking errors in the datagram
header
Source IP address: 32 bits IP address of the sender
Destination IP address: 32 bits IP address of the receiver
Option: Optional information such as source route, record route. Used by the
Network administrator to check whether a path is working or not.
The IPv6 header is a part of the data packet structure used in
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6), which is the latest version of the
Internet Protocol. IPv6 is designed to replace IPv4, offering a much
larger address space and improved features. The header in IPv6
contains important information needed for routing and delivering
packets across networks.
IPv6 header includes fields such as the source and destination
addresses, traffic class, flow label, payload length, and next header.
Understanding the IPv6 header is essential for managing and
troubleshooting modern IP networks.
IPv6 Header Format (Fields & Description)

Version (4 bits): Indicates the version of IP. For IPv6, the value is always 6.
Traffic Class (8 bits): Used to identify the priority or type of traffic (similar to
QoS — Quality of Service).
Flow Label (20 bits): Used to label packets in the same flow, helping routers
identify and handle them consistently.
Payload Length (16 bits): Specifies the size of the data (payload) after the header,
in bytes.
Next Header (8 bits): Tells what comes next — either an upper-layer protocol like
TCP/UDP, or an extension header.
Hop Limit (8 bits): Similar to TTL (Time To Live) in IPv4 — indicates the
maximum number of hops the packet can take before being discarded.
Source Address (128 bits): The IPv6 address of the sender of the packet.
Destination Address (128 bits): The IPv6 address of the receiver (final destination).
 1.3 Subnet, subnet addressing and address masking, supernetting

Introduction To Subnetting

Subnetting is the process of dividing a large network into smaller networks called "subnets." Subnets provide each group of
devices with their own space to communicate, which ultimately helps the network to work easily. This also boosts security
and makes it easier to manage the network, as each subnet can be monitored and controlled separately. In this article, we
will discuss Subnetting in detail.

A subnet is like a smaller group within a large network. It is a way to split a large network into smaller networks so that
devices present in one network can transmit data more easily. For example, in a company, different departments can each
have their own subnet, keeping their data traffic separate from others. Subnet makes the network faster and easier to manage
and also improves the security of the network.

By subnetting, we:

Save IP addresses (Efficiency): Only 112 addresses are used (80 + some spare), leaving 144 unused for
future growth.
Keep networks faster (Better Performance): Data within each department stays in its subnet. For example,
HR traffic stays in HR, reducing network congestion for Sales and IT.
Protect sensitive data (Improved Security): Each department is isolated. If someone in Sales tries to access
HR systems, subnet restrictions block them.
 Why Subnetting is Important?

Let's consider a company that follows classful addressing, it has a Class C network ([Link]/24) with
256 IP addresses. It has three departments: Sales: 20 devices
HR: 10 devices
IT: 50 devices

Without subnetting, all departments share the same network, and all 256 IP addresses are available to
everyone, which leads to:
IP Waste: Only 80 devices are needed (20 + 10 + 50), but all 256 addresses are allocated, wasting 176
addresses.
Performance Issues: Since all departments are on the same network, any data sent between devices floods
the entire network, slowing communication for everyone. For example, heavy data transfer in IT can
impact Sales and HR.
Security Risks: Without subnets, anyone in Sales can access HR or IT devices, exposing sensitive data like
payroll systems. With Subnetting, we split the network into three subnets, allocating just enough IP
addresses for each department:

Sales: [Link]/27 → 32 IPs (for 20 devices, 12 spare)

HR: [Link]/28 → 16 IPs (for 10 devices, 6 spare)
IT: [Link]/26 → 64 IPs (for 50 devices, 14 spare)
 Key Concepts in Subnetting : IP Addressing

An IP address is made up of different parts, each serving a specific purpose in identifying a

device on a network. An IPv4 address consists of four parts called "octets," separated by dots
(e.g., [Link]). It has two main sections:
Network Portion: Identifies the network the device belongs to.
Host Portion: Uniquely identifies a device within the network.
IPv4 addresses are divided into classes based on the length of the network and host portions:
Class A: 8-bit network ID, 24-bit host ID.
Class B: 16-bit network ID, 16-bit host ID.
Class C: 24-bit network ID, 8-bit host ID.
 What is a Subnet Mask?

A subnet mask is a 32-bit number used in IP addressing to separate the network portion of an IP
address from the host portion. It helps computers and devices determine which part of an IP address
refers to the network they are present, and which part refers to their specific location or address
within that network.

CIDR Notation: A Simplified Approach to Subnetting

Instead of using a long subnet mask (e.g., [Link]), CIDR uses a simple format like /24. The
number after the slash (/n) represents the number of bits used for the network portion of the IP
address.

How Subnetting Works?

The working of subnets starts in such a way that firstly it divides the subnets into smaller subnets. For
communicating between subnets, routers are used. Each subnet allows its linked devices to
communicate with each other. Subnetting for a network should be done in such a way that it does
not affect the network bits.
In class C the first 3 octets are network bits so it remains as it is.
For Subnet-1: The first bit which is chosen from the host id part is zero and the range will be from
(193.1.2.00000000 till you get all 1's in the host ID part i.e, 193.1.2.01111111) except for the first bit
which is chosen zero for subnet id part.
Thus, the range of subnet 1 is: [Link] to [Link]
For Subnet-2: The first bit chosen from the host id part is one and the range will be from
(193.1.2.100000000 till you get all 1's in the host ID part i.e, 193.1.2.11111111).
Thus, the range of subnet-2 is: [Link] to [Link]
Subnet id of Subnet-2 is : [Link]
The direct Broadcast id of Subnet-2 is: [Link]
The total number of hosts possible is: 126 (Out of 128, 2 id's are used for Subnet id & Direct
Broadcast id)
The subnet mask of Subnet- 2 is: [Link]

The best way to find out the subnet mask of a subnet is to set the fixed bit of host-id to 1 and
the rest to 0.
Finally, after using the subnetting the total number of usable hosts is reduced from 254 to 252.

Note:
To divide a network into four (2 2 ) parts you need to choose two bits from the host id part for
each subnet i.e, (00, 01, 10, 11).
To divide a network into eight (2 3 ) parts you need to choose three bits from the host id part
for each subnet i.e, (000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111) and so on.
We can say that if the total number of subnets in a network increases the total number of
usable hosts decreases.
Example 1: An organization is assigned a class C network address of [Link]. It
uses a netmask of [Link] to divide this into sub-networks. Which of the
following is/are valid host IP addresses?
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Both (A) and (C)

SOLVE BY YOUR OWN

 SUPERNETTING

Supernetting is a networking technique that aggregates multiple smaller networks into a larger
network block. This process simplifies routing and reduces the size of routing tables, which is
beneficial for network performance and management.
It allows for route summarization, minimizing the overhead associated with managing multiple
routes.
Supernetting enhances interoperability between different networks, enabling them to function
as a unified system.
It is particularly useful in route advertisement and can also be applied to create access control
lists.
The process is also known as address aggregation or prefix aggregation.
Overall, supernetting is a valuable tool in optimizing network performance and managing the
growth of internet routing tables.

Important Points for Supernetting

All the Networks should be contiguous.
The block size of every network should be equal and must be in form of 2n.
First Network id should be exactly divisible by whole size of supernet.
 Explanation: Before Supernetting routing table will look like as:

Network Id Subnet Mask Interface

[Link] [Link] A
[Link] [Link] B
[Link] [Link] C
[Link] [Link] D
First, let's check whether three conditions are satisfied or not:

Contiguous: You can easily see that all networks are contiguous all having size 256 IP Addresses( or 254
Hosts )..
Range of first Network from [Link] to [Link]. If you add 1 in last IP address of first network that is
[Link] + [Link], you will get the next network id which is [Link]. Similarly, check that all network
are contiguous.
Equal size of all network: As all networks are of class C, so all of them have a size of 256 which is in turn
equal to 28.
First IP address exactly divisible by total size: When a binary number is divided by 2n then last n bits are
the remainder. Hence in order to prove that first IP address is exactly divisible by while size of Supernet
Network. You can check that if last n (n here refers to the number of bits required to represent the Total
Size of the Supernet) bits are 0 or not.
In the given example first IP is [Link] and whole size of supernet is 4*28 = 210. If last 10 bits of first IP
address are zero then IP will be divisible.
Last 10 bits of first IP address are zero (highlighted by green color). So 3rd condition is also
satisfied.
Advantages of Supernetting
Control and reduce network traffic
Helpful to solve the problem of lacking IP addresses
Minimizes the routing table i.e, it cannot cover a different area of the network when
combined and all the networks should be in the same class and all IP should be contiguous
 1.4 Address Mapping- Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) - Mapping
logical to physical addresses, working and message format , Reverse
Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) Mapping physical to logical addresses
working and message format

What is Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)?

The acronym ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol which is one of the most important protocols
of the Data link layer in the OSI model. It is responsible to find the hardware address of a host from a
known IP address. There are three basic ARP terms.

Note: ARP finds the hardware address, also known as the Media Access Control (MAC) address, of a host
from its known IP address.

When computer programs send or get messages, they usually use something called an IP address, which
is like a virtual address. But underneath, the real talk happens using another type of address called a MAC
address, which is like a device's actual home address.
So, our goal is to find out the MAC address of where we want to talk to. That's where ARP comes in
handy. It helps by turning the IP address into the physical MAC address, so we can chat with other
devices on the network
 How ARP Works?

Imagine a device that wants to communicate with others over the internet. What does ARP do?
It broadcast a packet to all the devices of the source network. The devices of the network peel
the header of the data link layer from the Protocol Data Unit (PDU) called frame and transfer
the packet to the network layer (layer 3 of OSI) where the network ID of the packet is validated
with the destination IP's network ID of the packet and if it's equal then it responds to the source
with the MAC address of the destination, else the packet reaches the gateway of the network and
broadcasts packet to the devices it is connected with and validates their network ID. The above
process continues till the second last network device in the path reaches the destination where it
gets validated and ARP, in turn, responds with the destination MAC address.
 ARP Cache: After resolving the MAC address, the ARP sends it to the source where it is stored in a
table for future reference. The subsequent communications can use the MAC address from the table.
ARP Cache Timeout: It indicates the time for which the MAC address in the ARP cache can reside.
ARP request: This is nothing but broadcasting a packet over the network to validate whether we came
across the destination MAC address or not.

The physical address of the sender.

The IP address of the sender.
The physical address of the receiver is FF:FF:FF:FF:FF: FF or 1’s.
The IP address of the receiver.
ARP response/reply: It is the MAC address response that the source receives from the destination which aids
in further communication of the data.
CASE-1:
The sender wants to send a packet to another host on the same network.
Use ARP to find another host’s physical address.
CASE-2:
The sender is a host and wants to send a packet to another host on another network.
The sender looks at its routing table.
Find the IP address of the next hop (router) for this destination.
Find the IP address of the next hop (router) for this destination.
CASE-3:
The sender is a router and received a datagram.
The router checks its routing table.
Calculate the IP of the next router.
Use ARP to find the next router’s physical address.
CASE-4:
The sender is a router that has received a datagram destined for a host in the same
network.
Use ARP to find this host’s physical address.
Note: An ARP request is broadcast, and an ARP response is a Unicast.
Important Terms Associated with ARP
Reverse ARP
Proxy ARP
Inverse ARP
 Mapping Logical to Physical Address Using ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
In computer networking, logical addresses refer to IP addresses, and physical addresses refer
to MAC (Media Access Control) addresses. When devices communicate on a local network,
data is actually delivered using MAC addresses, not IP addresses.

To bridge this gap, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to map a device’s IP address
(logical) to its MAC address (physical).

Why Is Mapping Needed?

IP addresses are used for identification and routing over large networks (logical level).

MAC addresses are used for actual delivery of data within the same local network (physical
level).

So, before sending data on a LAN, the sender must translate the destination IP into a MAC
address.
 How ARP Works (Step-by-Step)
Device wants to send data to another device on the same local network.
It knows the IP address of the destination, but not the MAC address.

The sender broadcasts an ARP Request:

“Who has IP address [Link]? Tell me your MAC address.”
The device with that IP address replies with an ARP Reply:
“I have that IP. My MAC address is 08:00:27:5a:b3:19.”
The sender stores the IP-MAC mapping in its ARP cache (a table).
Data is now sent to the resolved MAC address.

🔗 Example
IP Address (Logical) MAC Address (Physical)
[Link] 08:00:27:5a:b3:19
[Link] 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E
If a computer wants to send data to [Link], it uses ARP to find that the MAC address is
08:00:27:5a:b3:19.
 Packet Format

The fields are as follows:

· Hardware type: This is a 16-bit field defining the type of the network on which ARP isrunning. Each LAN has been assigned
an integer based on its type. For example, Ethernet is given type 1. ARP can be used on any physical network

Protocol type: This is a 16-bit field defining the protocol. For example, the value of thisfield for the IPv4 protocol is 080016,
ARP can be used with any higher-level protocol.

Hardware length: This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the physical address inbytes. For example, for Ethernet the value
is 6.

Protocol length: This is an 8-bit field defining the length of the logical address in [Link] example, for the IPv4 protocol the
value is 4.

Operation: This is a 16-bit field defining the type of packet. Two packet types aredefined: ARP request (1) and ARP reply (2).

Sender hardware address: This is a variable-length field defining the physical addressof the sender. For example, for Ethernet
this field is 6 bytes long.

Sender protocol address: This is a variable-length field defining the logical (forexample, IP) address of the sender. For the IP
protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.

Target hardware address: This is a variable-length field defining the physical addressof the target. For example, for Ethernet this
field is 6 bytes long. For an ARP request message, this field is alIOs because the sender does not know the physical address of
the target.

Target protocol address: This is a variable-length field defining the logical (forexample, IP) address of the target. For the IPv4
protocol, this field is 4 bytes long.
 What is RARP?

RARP is a network protocol that allows a machine to determine its logical (IP) address
using its physical (MAC) address. This is particularly useful for devices like diskless
machines that do not have the capability to store an IP address.

Components of RARP
IP Address Assignment: Typically, a machine's IP address is stored in its configuration file
on a disk. However, diskless machines, which boot from ROM (Read-Only Memory), do
not have this capability.
Physical Address: These machines can access their unique physical address, usually obtained
from their Network Interface Card (NIC), which is specific to the hardware.
RARP Request: The machine sends a RARP request containing its physical address to a
RARP server in the network.
RARP Server: The RARP server holds a mapping of physical (MAC) addresses to logical
(IP) addresses. The server responds to the request, providing the corresponding IP address
for the machine.
 How does RARP Work?

Reverse ARP (RARP) is a network protocol used by a client machine in a local area network
(LAN) to obtain its Internet Protocol (IP) address from the gateway router's ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) table. When a machine doesn't have the memory to store its IP address, such
as diskless machines or newly configured systems, it uses RARP to request an IP address.
RARP

1. RARP Request: A client machine that needs an IP address sends a broadcast message, known as a
RARP request, to the network. This request contains the machine's unique MAC (Media Access
Control) address in both the sender and receiver hardware address fields.
2. ARP Table in Gateway Router: The gateway router contains an ARP table that maps the MAC
addresses to their corresponding IP addresses. This table is set up by the network administrator.
3. RARP Server Response: When a RARP request is received, the RARP server (which can be a
regular computer in the network) checks its ARP table. If the MAC address in the RARP request
matches one in its table, the server sends back the corresponding IP address to the requesting
client.
4. Client Assignment: Upon receiving the IP address, the client machine configures itself with the
new IP address. The RARP protocol facilitates the assignment of an IP address to the client that did
not have a pre-configured one.
 RARP Packet Format & Encapsulation

RARP Packet

Packet Format: The format of the RARP packet is identical to the ARP packet format. The key
difference lies in the Operation field.
For a RARP Request message, the value of the Operation field is 3.
For a RARP Reply message, the value of the Operation field is 4.
Encapsulation: Just like ARP packets, RARP packets are encapsulated directly into a data link
frame. This ensures that the RARP packet can be transmitted over the network at the data link
layer, where it is sent using the appropriate addressing scheme, typically Ethernet.
Difference between RARP vs ARP