The Fundamentals of Psychological Research Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research

Exploring Descriptive Research Methods

Understanding Correlational Research Methods

Techniques in Experimental Psychology

Statistical Analysis Techniques in Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of Mental Processes

mental processes and behavior.

Behavior
Psychology is the scientific study of Mental Processes

mental processes and behavior. These are like the "thinking"

parts of our brain.

It's everything happening inside our

heads that we can't see from the outside.

Behavior
Psychology is the scientific study of Mental Processes

mental processes and behavior. These are like the "thinking"

parts of our brain.

It's everything happening inside our

heads that we can't see from the outside.

Behavior

This is what we do and how we act.

It's all the things we can see people do on the outside.

 Brain imaging studies Exploring the psychology of
investigating neural correlates Assessing the psychological brand loyalty and brand Examining the psychological
of addiction. benefits of participating in attachment in consumer consequences of natural
team sports, such as increased preferences. disasters such as hurricanes,
The influence of social media self-confidence and resilience. earthquakes, and wildfires on
on self-esteem and body Examining the psychological survivors' mental health and
image. Investigating the factors benefits of VR exposure well-being.
contributing to happiness and therapy for treating phobias
Long-term effects of early life satisfaction. and anxiety disorders.
childhood trauma on adult
mental health. Examining eyewitness Assessing the effectiveness of
testimony accuracy and smartphone apps for
The effects of meditation on factors influencing memory delivering cognitive-behavioral
attention and memory. recall in legal contexts. therapy (CBT) and
mindfulness-based
Examining the impact of music Examining the effects of media interventions for anxiety and
genres on mood regulation exposure on children's social depression.
and emotional well-being in development and behavior.
adolescents. Possible Research
Topics in Psychology
Cognitive biases can distort our thinking
and lead to incorrect conclusions.

● Confirmation bias, people tend to

look for, interpret, or remember
information in a way that confirms
what they already believe.
Consider a student who strongly believes that eating chocolate before a
test improves their performance. They recall instances where they ate
chocolate and did well on tests, but conveniently overlook occasions
when they didn't perform as well despite consuming chocolate.
Seeking validation for their belief, they selectively gather feedback from
classmates who have and haven't tried eating chocolate before tests. By
seeking only confirming evidence and disregarding contradictory
experiences, they inadvertently reinforce their biased belief in the
effectiveness of chocolate consumption before exams.
Cognitive biases can distort our thinking
and lead to incorrect conclusions.

● Hindsight bias, people believe that

they knew something was going to
happen after it has already occurred,
even if they didn't actually predict it
Suppose a group of friends is discussing a recent basketball game.
beforehand. One friend confidently asserts that they knew the winning team
would emerge victorious because they're always right about sports
predictions. Reflecting on past games, they recall instances where
they correctly predicted outcomes and conveniently overlook
occasions when they were mistaken.
Cognitive biases can distort our thinking
and lead to incorrect conclusions.

● Overconfidence, when people have

too much faith in their own judgments
or abilities, thinking they know more
than they actually do. Imagine a student who feels excessively confident in their
ability to perform well on an upcoming exam without
studying. They rely solely on their intuition and past successes,
presuming they'll excel based on their perceived intelligence.
Despite feedback on a previous exam that didn't meet their
expectations, they remain steadfast in their belief of their academic
prowess. It's only after repeated failures and setbacks that they
reluctantly acknowledge the limitations of their overconfidence.
 "Opposites attract in relationships." These claims often stem from common
misconceptions, stereotypes, or
"We only use 10% of our brain." anecdotal evidence, rather than
"Men are better at math than women." rigorous scientific research. It's
important to critically evaluate such
"Introverts are shy and extroverts are outgoing." claims and seek out evidence-based
information before accepting them as
"Multitasking makes you more productive."
true.
"Dreams have specific meanings or predictions."
"Watching violent movies or playing violent video games leads
to real-life aggression."
"People's personalities are fixed and cannot change over
time."
"Talking about suicide with someone who is depressed will
make them more likely to attempt it."
Empirical evidence refers to information
that is obtained through observation,
experimentation, or measurement.

● Empirical evidence helps prevent cognitive

bias by providing objective data that can
counteract our natural tendencies to make
biased judgments or decisions. A survey assessing smartphone usage and sleep patterns:
Researchers distribute surveys to a sample of individuals, asking
about their smartphone usage before bedtime and their quality of
sleep. By analyzing survey responses and correlating smartphone
usage with sleep patterns, psychologists can gather empirical
evidence of the relationship between screen time and sleep quality.
Psychology is considered a science because
it uses the same scientific method as
other sciences.

● By applying the scientific method,

psychologists can generate empirical
evidence, test hypotheses, and develop
theories that are grounded in objective
observation and analysis.
The Scientific Method in psychology is a Observations/Research Question

systematic approach used to study human Formulate Hypothesis

behavior and mental processes.
Design Experiment
● The method involves making observations,
forming hypotheses, conducting Collect Data
experiments or studies, analyzing data, and
drawing conclusions based on evidence. Analyze Data

Draw Conclusions

Communicate Results
 Hypothesis: "Individuals who engage in mindfulness meditation
Hypothesis in psychology is a specific, will report lower levels of stress compared to individuals who do
testable prediction or educated guess about not engage in mindfulness meditation."

the relationship between variables or the Hypothesis: "Increased social media use is associated with higher
levels of depression among adolescents."
outcome of a research study.
Hypothesis: "Children who receive praise for effort (rather than
ability) will demonstrate higher levels of persistence and
● It is based on existing theories, self-esteem."
observations, or previous research
Hypothesis: "Exposure to natural light during the day will result
findings. in improved sleep quality and mood among office workers."

Hypothesis: "Students who study in a quiet environment will

perform better on exams compared to students who study in
noisy environments."
Falsifiable a falsifiable hypothesis in
psychology is a statement that can be tested
and potentially proven false through
observation or experimentation.

● These hypotheses are formulated in a

way that allows for the possibility of
Hypothesis: "Increased exposure to violent video games leads
evidence to contradict or refute them. to higher levels of aggression in adolescents."
This hypothesis can be tested by conducting experiments where
participants are randomly assigned to either play violent video games or
non-violent video games. By measuring aggression levels before and after
gameplay, researchers can determine if there is a significant difference
between the two groups. If the results show no increase in aggression
among those who played violent video games, the hypothesis would be
falsified.
 Research Submission
Peer Review a process where research
articles and studies are evaluated by experts Editorial Office
in the field before they are published in Assignment to Reviewers
academic journals.
Review Process

● These experts, or peers, critically assess Reviewer Feedback

the quality, validity, and significance of the
Editor Decision
research, providing feedback and
recommendations to the authors. Author Decision

Final Decision

Publication to Journal
[Link]
 Replication Attempt: Other researchers attempt to
Replication the process of repeating or replicate the original study by conducting a similar study
with new participants.
reproducing a research study to determine
if its findings can be consistently observed. Results Comparison: The data collected from the
replication study are analyzed and compared to the results
of the original study.
● This involves conducting the same
Confirmation or Discrepancy: If the results of the
experiment or study with new participants, replication study align closely with the original findings, it
under similar conditions, and using the same confirms the reliability of the original results. If there are
or similar procedures as the original study. discrepancies, further investigation is needed to understand
potential factors contributing to the differences.

Publication of Replication Results: The findings of the

replication study are published, contributing to the scientific
literature and providing insight into the robustness and
generalizability of the original findings.
 Reliability Validity

A measure or test is considered reliable if it

produces consistent results when
administered repeatedly under similar
conditions.
 Reliability Validity

A measure or test is considered reliable if it

produces consistent results when
administered repeatedly under similar
conditions.

“RRR" stands for "Repeated, Reliable Results.

 Reliability Validity

A measure or test is considered reliable if it Validity in psychology refers to the extent to

produces consistent results when which a research study or measurement tool
administered repeatedly under similar accurately measures what it intends to
conditions. measure. A measure or test is considered
valid if it effectively assesses the construct or
concept it is designed to measure.
“RRR" stands for "Repeated, Reliable Results.
 Reliability Validity

A measure or test is considered reliable if it Validity in psychology refers to the extent to

produces consistent results when which a research study or measurement tool
administered repeatedly under similar accurately measures what it intends to
conditions. measure. A measure or test is considered
valid if it effectively assesses the construct or
concept it is designed to measure.
“RRR" stands for "Repeated, Reliable Results.
"VET" stands for "Valid Evidence,True."
The American Psychological
Association (APA) is a leading
professional organization dedicated to
advancing the field of psychology and
promoting the application of psychological
knowledge to improve human welfare.
Through its publications, conferences, advocacy efforts,
and educational initiatives, the APA plays a critical role in
● Founded in 1892, the APA has grown to become shaping the direction of psychological research, practice,
the largest association of psychologists worldwide, and policy. Its mission encompasses a commitment to
with over 121,000 members, including researchers, fostering psychological research, promoting ethical
educators, clinicians, and students. standards and practices, advocating for the profession of
psychology, and disseminating psychological knowledge to
the public.
 Research Design- Overall Structure Methodology- Specific Techniques

The overall plan or strategy that outlines

how a research study will be conducted to
address specific research questions or
objectives.

Common types of research designs include

experimental, correlational, and descriptive.
 Research Design- Overall Structure Methodology- Specific Techniques

The overall plan or strategy that outlines The systematic procedures and techniques
how a research study will be conducted to used to conduct research within a specific
address specific research questions or research design.
objectives.
Methodology includes decisions about sampling
Common types of research designs include procedures, data collection methods (e.g.,
experimental, correlational, and descriptive. surveys, interviews, observations), data analysis
techniques (e.g., statistical tests, qualitative
coding), and quality assurance measures.
 Quantitative Data (Numerical) Qualitative Data

Quantitative Data is numbers-based

information gathered from surveys, tests, or
experiments.

It helps us understand patterns and

relationships in a precise way.
 Quantitative Data (Numerical) Qualitative Data

Quantitative Data is numbers-based

information gathered from surveys, tests, or
experiments.

It helps us understand patterns and

relationships in a precise way.
Q for Quantity: Quantitative data is about the Quantity
of numbers.
 Please indicate your level of agreement with the
Likert Scales are a measurement tool used following statements:
in surveys and questionnaires to assess
I enjoy spending time with friends.
people's attitudes, opinions, or perceptions. ● Strongly Agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Respondents are presented with a series of ● Disagree
statements or questions and asked to indicate ● Strongly Disagree
their level of agreement or disagreement on a I feel confident in my ability to succeed in challenging
scale, typically ranging from 'Strongly Agree' to tasks.
'Strongly Disagree'. ● Strongly Agree
● Agree
● Neutral
● Disagree
● Strongly Disagree
 Quantitative Data (Numerical) Qualitative Data (Non-Numerical)

Quantitative Data is numbers-based Qualitative data is not about numbers but

information gathered from surveys, tests, or gives deeper insights into complex topics.
experiments.
Information collected through methods like
It helps us understand patterns and interviews or observations, focusing on
relationships in a precise way. people's experiences and behaviors.

Q for Quantity: Quantitative data is about the Quantity

of numbers.
 Quantitative Data (Numerical) Qualitative Data (Non-Numerical)

Quantitative Data is numbers-based Qualitative data is not about numbers but

information gathered from surveys, tests, or gives deeper insights into complex topics.
experiments.
Information collected through methods like
It helps us understand patterns and interviews or observations, focusing on
relationships in a precise way. people's experiences and behaviors.

Q for Quantity: Quantitative data is about the Quantity Q for Quality: Qualitative data is about the Quality of
of numbers. experiences and observations.
 Interviewer: Good morning! Thank you for joining us
today. We're conducting interviews to gather insights
Structured Interviews research method on people's preferences for outdoor activities. Let's
begin:
in which predetermined questions are asked
to all participants in the same order. How often do you engage in outdoor activities such as
hiking, camping, or picnics?
a. Daily
● This standardized approach allows for b. Several times a week
c. Once a week
consistent data collection and facilitates d. Occasionally
e. Rarely or never
comparisons across participants. What factors influence your decision to participate in
outdoor activities?
a. Enjoyment of nature
b. Physical fitness goals
c. Spending time with friends or family
d. Seeking adventure and new experiences
e. Other (please specify)
 Topic: Stress and Coping Strategies
Survey Technique research method in
psychology used to collect data from a What are the main sources of stress in your
life? (Open-ended)
sample of individuals through self-report
measures. On a scale of 1 to 5, how effective do you find
the following coping strategies in managing
● Surveys typically involve asking participants a series stress? (Quantitative)
of open-ended questions about their attitudes,
beliefs, opinions, or behaviors. Talking to friends or family
1 - Not effective at all
● The survey technique can yield both qualitative and 2 - Slightly effective
quantitative data, depending on the nature of the 3 - Moderately effective
questions and the response format used in the 4 - Very effective
survey. 5 - Extremely effective
 Imagine a school survey about student
Wording Effect subtle changes in the wellness habits. Two versions of the same
phrasing or wording of survey questions can question are distributed to different groups of
students:
influence respondents' interpretations and
responses. Version 1: "Do you feel stressed about
your upcoming exams?"
● This effect can lead to biased or inaccurate Version 2: "Are you worried about failing
data due to variations in how individuals your upcoming exams?"
perceive and understand the questions.
In this scenario, the subtle difference in
wording between the two versions ("stressed"
vs. "worried about failing") may evoke different
responses from students.
Social Desirability Bias refers to the
tendency of individuals to respond in a
manner that is viewed favorably by others or
conforms to social norms, rather than
providing honest or accurate answers.

Imagine a survey asks teenagers about their study habits, and

one question is whether they always complete their
homework on time. Due to social desirability bias, some
students might feel pressured to give a socially acceptable
answer, even if it doesn't reflect their actual behavior. So, even if a
student often procrastinates and doesn't finish homework
promptly, they might still say they always complete it on time to
avoid appearing lazy or irresponsible.
Naturalistic Observation research
method in psychology where researchers
observe and record behavior in real-world
settings without intervention or
manipulation.

Naturalistic observation could involve studying children's

● Often used to generate hypotheses, identify playground behavior in a local park. Researchers could visit the
patterns, and gain a deeper understanding of park during different times of the day and observe how children
interact with each other, use playground equipment, and resolve
human behavior in its natural context. conflicts. They might note whether certain age groups tend to play
together, how children respond to adult supervision, and any patterns
of socialization or group dynamics that emerge. By observing behavior
in a natural setting without interference, researchers can gain insights
into typical playground behaviors and social interactions among
children.
 Researchers employ various data collection methods during
Naturalistic Observation research naturalistic observation:
method in psychology where researchers Tally Counts: Researchers record occurrences of specific
observe and record behavior in real-world behaviors by marking down each instance and noting when
and how often these behaviors occur.
settings without intervention or
manipulation. Observer Narratives: Observers take notes during
observation sessions, capturing detailed descriptions of
behaviors and interactions. Later, these notes are reviewed
to identify patterns and trends in behavior.
● Often used to generate hypotheses, identify
patterns, and gain a deeper understanding of Audio or Video Recordings: In some cases, researchers
human behavior in its natural context. may use audio or video recordings to document
observation sessions. This allows for a more accurate and
comprehensive analysis of behavior, particularly for complex
or subtle behaviors that may be missed during live
observation.
EarthCam Observation Activity:
Exploring Human Behavior To observe and
analyze human behavior in real-world settings
using EarthCam surveillance footage, applying
the principles of naturalistic observation.

● What are some advantages of using

naturalistic observation in studying human
behavior?
● What are some challenges or limitations
[Link]
associated with conducting naturalistic p?cam=catsmeow_lv_fremont
observation studies?
Case Study research method in psychology
that involves an in-depth examination of a
single individual, group, or phenomenon.

● Findings from case studies may not

always be generalizable to broader
A case study in psychology is the case of Genie, also known as the
populations due to their focus on "Wild Child." Genie was a girl who was severely neglected and abused by
her parents and isolated from the outside world for nearly 13 years.
specific cases. When she was discovered by authorities at the age of 13, she exhibited
extreme social and cognitive deficits, lacking language skills and exhibiting
signs of severe developmental delays. Researchers closely studied Genie's
case, documenting her progress as she underwent intensive rehabilitation
and therapy. Through this case study, psychologists gained insights into the
critical period hypothesis, which suggests that there is an optimal window
for language acquisition during early childhood.
The Question: What do you believe to be the causes of
Andrea Yates’ murder of her children?

● Do we find the cause to be her private mental

functioning (psych perspective)?
● Do we find the cause in her genetic basis (bio
perspective)?
● Do we find the cause in her social environment
(socio-cultural perspective)?
Case Study Analysis You will be presented with
real-life case studies from psychology literature.
Read the case study carefully and pay attention to
the details provided about the individual being
studied. This will be a group discussion.

● Provide a brief overview of the case study

subject, including their background,
experiences, and significant events.
● What are the primary strengths and
weaknesses of using a case study approach
to investigate this particular subject?
Correlational Research scientific method
used in psychology to examine the
relationship between two or more variables.

● Correlational studies do not involve

manipulation of variables; instead, they
focus on observing and measuring
naturally occurring associations
between variables.
Correlational Research scientific method
used in psychology to examine the
relationship between two or more variables.

● Correlational studies do not involve

manipulation of variables; instead, they
A study that examines the relationship between hours of sleep
focus on observing and measuring and academic performance among high school students.
naturally occurring associations Researchers collect data from a group of students, recording the
number of hours they sleep each night and their grades in various
between variables. subjects. After analyzing the data, they find a positive correlation,
indicating that students who sleep more tend to have higher grades,
while those who sleep less tend to have lower grades. This
correlational research suggests a relationship between sleep duration
and academic performance but does not establish causation.
Correlational Research allows
psychologists to identify patterns and make
predictions, but it does not establish
causation between variables.
Third Variable Problem the possibility
that a third, unmeasured variable may be
influencing the relationship between the two
variables of interest.

● The presence of a correlation does not

imply a cause-and-effect relationship
between the variables, as there could
be other factors at play.
Third Variable Problem the possibility
that a third, unmeasured variable may be
influencing the relationship between the two
variables of interest.

● The presence of a correlation does not

imply a cause-and-effect relationship A student who is heavily involved in extracurricular activities might
have less time to sleep and also less time to study, which could
between the variables, as there could negatively impact their academic performance. In this case, it's not just
be other factors at play. the hours of sleep that are influencing academic performance; it's also
the level of extracurricular involvement. Therefore, when interpreting
the correlation between hours of sleep and academic performance,
researchers need to consider the influence of potential third variables
like extracurricular activities to ensure accurate conclusions.
● 90% of people who use umbrellas during rainstorms get wet. Does using an umbrella
cause people to get wet?
● 80% of individuals who watch TV regularly are overweight. Does watching TV cause weight
gain?
● 70% of students who drink coffee before exams perform well academically. Does drinking
coffee cause academic success?
● 85% of people who wear glasses have higher intelligence scores. Does wearing glasses lead
to higher intelligence?
● 75% of individuals who exercise regularly experience joint pain. Does exercising cause
joint pain?
● 60% of individuals who take vitamins daily have lower energy levels. Do vitamins cause
decreased energy levels?
● 80% of individuals who use social media frequently report feelings of loneliness. Does
using social media cause loneliness?
● 70% of people who eat ice cream regularly have higher rates of sunburn. Does eating ice
cream cause sunburn?
Scatterplot a visual representation used in
correlational research to display the
relationship between two variables.

● Scatterplots allow researchers to visually

assess the strength and direction of the
correlation between the variables and
identify any outliers or unusual patterns in
the data.
Correlation Coefficient statistical +0.98
measure used in correlational research to
quantify the strength and direction of the
relationship between two variables. -0.78

● It is represented by the symbol "r" and +0.30

ranges from -1 to +1. The correlation
coefficient is usually
-0.60 represented by the letter
r.
Number represents the
strength of relationship.
Correlation Coefficient The closer the
correlation coefficient is to +1 or -1, the
stronger the relationship between the
variables.

● Stronger = Predictable
● Weaker = Less Predictable
 ● The number of friends a teenager has on
Correlation Coefficient A correlation
social media and their favorite color.
coefficient of 0 indicates no relationship ● The amount of time spent playing video
between the variables. games and the number of siblings a
teenager has.
● The brand of shoes a teenager wears and
their favorite movie genre.
● The amount of time spent doing
homework and the type of music a
teenager listens to.
● The frequency of using emojis in text
messages and the preferred mode of
transportation to school.
Correlation Coefficient A correlation
coefficient of 0 indicates no relationship
between the variables.
 ● The more time spent practicing a musical
Positive Correlation A correlation instrument, the higher the skill level achieved.
coefficient of +1 indicates a perfect positive ● Increased hours of part-time work may lead
relationship, one variable tends to decrease to higher earnings for teenagers.
as the other variable decreases, or one ● More hours spent exercising per week could
lead to better physical fitness and health
variable tends to increase when the other
outcomes.
increases. ● The more hours dedicated to studying, the
higher the grades achieved in school.
● Variables moving in the same ● The more time spent volunteering or
direction. engaging in community service, the greater
the sense of satisfaction and fulfillment
experienced.
Positive Correlation A correlation
coefficient of +1 indicates a perfect positive
relationship, meaning that as one variable
increases, the other variable also increases.

● Variables moving in the same

direction.
Positive Correlation A correlation
coefficient of +1 indicates a perfect positive
relationship, meaning that as one variable
increases, the other variable also increases.

● Variables moving in the same

direction.
Positive Correlation A correlation
coefficient of +1 indicates a perfect positive
relationship, meaning that as one variable
increases, the other variable also increases.

● Variables moving in the same

direction.
 ● The more hours spent on social media, the
Negative Correlation A correlation lower the grades achieved in school.
coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative ● Increased screen time may lead to
relationship, meaning that as one variable decreased physical activity levels among
increases, the other variable decreases. teenagers.
● The more hours spent working a part-time
job, the lower the amount of time available
● Variables moving in opposite
for studying.
directions. ● Higher levels of stress may correlate with
lower levels of happiness or life satisfaction.
● The more time spent commuting to school,
the lower the amount of time available for
extracurricular activities.
Negative Correlation A correlation
coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative
relationship, meaning that as one variable
increases, the other variable decreases.

● Variables moving in opposite

directions.
Negative Correlation A correlation
coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative
relationship, meaning that as one variable
increases, the other variable decreases.

● Variables moving in opposite

directions.
Negative Correlation A correlation
coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative
relationship, meaning that as one variable
increases, the other variable decreases.

● Variables moving in opposite

directions.
"Strength, Positive or Negative, and Close to 1 or 0."

● Strength: Think about how strong the relationship is between the

variables. A correlation coefficient close to 1 or -1 indicates a
strong relationship, while one closer to 0 indicates a weak
relationship.
● Positive or Negative: Determine whether the correlation is
positive or negative. A positive correlation means that as one
variable increases, the other variable tends to increase as well. A
negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other
tends to decrease.
Real-Life Correlation Analysis Students will
analyze 10 real-life correlation scenarios,
identifying whether there is a positive, negative,
or no correlation between variables, and
considering potential third variables.

● Students will then create a simple

scatterplot using provided data points to
visualize the relationship and determine
its strength.
Experimental Method a research
technique used to investigate
cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.

● In an experiment, the researcher

manipulates one variable and measures
its effect on another variable.
 Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Independent Variable the variable that

the researcher deliberately changes or
manipulates in an experiment.

The factor that researchers are testing to

see if it causes changes in behavior or
outcomes.
 Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Independent Variable the variable that Dependent Variable the variable that is
the researcher deliberately changes or observed and measured for changes in an
manipulates in an experiment. experiment.

The factor that researchers are testing to The outcome or response that may be
see if it causes changes in behavior or affected by the independent variable.
outcomes.
 Independent Variable Dependent Variable

"I.C.E."

"I": "Independent" starts with the letter "I".

"C": The independent variable is Controlled
by the researcher.
"E": It's the variable that researchers
change to see its Effect.
 Independent Variable Dependent Variable

"I.C.E." "D.R.E.A.M."

"I": "Independent" starts with the letter "I". "D": The "Dependent" variable.
"C": The independent variable is Controlled "R": It's the Result or Response that changes.
by the researcher. "E": It's what's being Examined or observed.
"E": It's the variable that researchers "A": It's Affected by the independent variable.
change to see its Effect. "M": It's Measured or observed in an
experiment.
 Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Manipulated Measured
Let's consider a scenario where we're studying the effects of studying on test scores.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

 Let's consider a scenario where we're studying the effects of studying on test scores.

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

The amount of time spent studying. Test scores. This variable is what the
In this scenario, the researcher can researcher is measuring and is expected to
manipulate this variable by assigning change based on the manipulation of the
different groups of students to study for independent variable. In our example, the test
different durations, such as one group scores of the students would be measured
studying for 1 hour, another for 2 hours, and after they have studied for their assigned
so on. durations.
 Prior knowledge: Students with different levels of prior
Confounding Variables It's a variable that knowledge on the test topic could perform differently
wasn't accounted for or controlled in the regardless of the time spent studying.

study but still affects the results. Study environment: Factors such as noise level,
distractions, or comfort of the study environment could
impact studying effectiveness and subsequently test scores.
● Confounding variables can distort the
true effect of the independent variable Motivation: Variations in students' motivation levels or
interest in the subject matter might affect how much effort
on the dependent variable, making it they put into studying and thus their test scores.
difficult to determine causality.
Quality of study materials: Differences in the quality or
relevance of study materials used by different groups of
students could influence their understanding and retention
of the material.
 Amount of time studying: Operationalized as the number of
hours spent actively engaged in studying a specific subject or
Operational Definitions specifies how a
topic, as reported by participants in a study log or self-report
researcher will measure and manipulate questionnaire.

variables in a study. Test scores: Operationalized as the numerical score obtained by

each participant on a standardized test assessing their knowledge
● It outlines the exact procedures or operations of the studied material, measured on a scale from 0 to 100.
used to define and quantify abstract concepts or
Prior knowledge: Operationalized as the score obtained by
constructs, making them measurable and
participants on a pre-test assessing their baseline understanding
observable. of the test material before any studying takes place.

Study environment: Operationalized as the level of noise and

● Operational definitions ensure consistency and
number of distractions present in the room where participants
clarity in research, allowing other researchers to study, measured on a scale from 1 to 5 based on observer ratings.
replicate the study and verify its findings.
 Experimental Group Control Group

Experimental Group the participants in

the experimental group are indeed exposed
to the independent variable, which is the
variable manipulated by the researcher to
observe its effect on the dependent variable.
 Experimental Group Control Group

Experimental Group the participants in Control Group is a group of participants

the experimental group are indeed exposed who were not exposed to the independent
to the independent variable, which is the variable, providing a baseline for comparison
variable manipulated by the researcher to with the experimental group.
observe its effect on the dependent variable.
 Experimental Group Control Group

Participants assigned to the experimental

group would receive a specific study
intervention, such as a study technique or
educational program aimed at improving
their learning efficiency. For example, they
might use a mnemonic strategy to
memorize vocabulary words.
 Experimental Group Control Group

Participants assigned to the experimental Participants assigned to the control group

group would receive a specific study would not receive any special study
intervention, such as a study technique or intervention and would proceed with their
educational program aimed at improving usual study routine or no intervention. For
their learning efficiency. For example, they example, they might continue studying
might use a mnemonic strategy to vocabulary words using their regular
memorize vocabulary words. methods without any additional techniques.
 Drawing names from a hat: Assign each participant
Random Assignment research method a number and then draw numbers from a hat to
determine group assignment.
used to assign participants to different
groups in an experiment randomly. Random number generator: Use a computer
program or app to generate random numbers to assign
participants to groups.
● Ensures that each participant has an
equal chance of being assigned to any Coin toss: Assign participants to groups based on the
condition, helping to minimize bias and outcome of a coin toss, such as heads for one group
and tails for the other.
ensure that the groups are comparable
at the start of the study. Random assignment software: Utilize specialized
software designed for random assignment in research
studies.
Placebo Effect the phenomenon where
individuals experience improvement in their
condition solely because they believe they
are receiving a beneficial treatment, rather
than due to any active ingredient or
physiological mechanism in the placebo itself.
In a study examining the effects of studying on test scores, the placebo effect
could manifest if participants who believe they are engaging in an effective
study method experience an increase in their test scores, even if the study
method itself is ineffective or unrelated to academic performance. For
example, if students are told that a certain study technique has been shown
to improve test scores (even if it hasn't), they may feel more confident and
motivated, leading to better performance on the test. This highlights the
importance of including a control group that doesn't receive any specific
study instructions or interventions to isolate the true effects of studying on
test scores from the placebo effect.
Experimenter Bias the researcher's
expectations or beliefs about the outcome of
a study influence the results.

● This bias can inadvertently affect how

the study is conducted or how data is
interpreted, leading to inaccurate
conclusions. If the experimenters interact differently with participants in the
experimental group (studying) compared to those in the control group
(placebo condition), it could unintentionally impact the participants'
performance. Additionally, if the experimenters know which group each
participant belongs to, they might inadvertently convey their
expectations or preferences, leading to biased results.
 Single-Blind Study Double-Blind Study

Single-Blind Study research design where

participants are unaware of whether they
belong to the experimental or control
group, but the researchers conducting the
study are aware of this information.
 Single-Blind Study Double-Blind Study

Single-Blind Study research design where Double-Blind Study research design

participants are unaware of whether they where both the participants and the
belong to the experimental or control researchers conducting the study are
group, but the researchers conducting the unaware of who belongs to the
study are aware of this information. experimental or control group.
Placebo Condition administering the
placebo to one group of participants while
the other group receives the actual
treatment being tested.

● In a research study, the placebo is

typically given to the control group.
Sample refers to a subset of individuals or
cases selected from a larger population for
study.

● Samples are used in research to make

inferences about the population as a
whole.

Population of Interest: Students

 Stratified sampling is a method where the
Representative Sample a subset of population is divided into subgroups, or strata,
individuals selected from a larger population based on certain characteristics, and then random
samples are taken from each stratum.
in such a way that it accurately reflects the
demographics, characteristics, and diversity of In the scenario of studying the effects of studying
that population. on test scores, researchers could use stratified
sampling by dividing the student population into
strata based on factors like grade level (e.g., 9th,
● By including a diverse range of participants
10th, 11th, and 12th grades) or academic
that mirrors the population's composition,
performance (e.g., high achievers, average achievers,
researchers can minimize biases and increase
and low achievers). They would then randomly
the likelihood that their results are applicable
select participants from each stratum to ensure
to the broader group they represent. representation from all groups in the study.
 Convenience sampling, on the other hand,
Representative Sample a subset of involves selecting participants based on their
individuals selected from a larger population availability and accessibility to the researcher.
in such a way that it accurately reflects the
In the scenario, convenience sampling might
demographics, characteristics, and diversity of
involve recruiting students who are readily
that population. available to participate, such as those in a
particular classroom or those who volunteer to
● By including a diverse range of participants take part in the study. While convenient, this
that mirrors the population's composition, method may introduce bias because it doesn't
researchers can minimize biases and increase ensure that the sample is representative of the
the likelihood that their results are applicable entire student population, potentially limiting
to the broader group they represent. the generalizability of the study's findings.
Random Sample Random sampling
ensures that each participant in the study has
an equal opportunity to be included, which
helps to minimize the influence of researcher
bias and increase the generalizability of the
findings to the population as a whole.
 Lottery method: Assigning each member
Random Sample Random sampling of the population a number and using a
ensures that each participant in the study has random drawing or lottery to select the
an equal opportunity to be included, which sample.
helps to minimize the influence of researcher
bias and increase the generalizability of the Random sampling software: Utilizing
computer software designed to generate
findings to the population as a whole.
random samples from a population database.

Random selection from a hat or bowl:

Writing each member of the population on a
separate piece of paper and then randomly
selecting samples from a container.
Sample Bias This bias occurs when the
sample is not representative of the larger
population, leading to inaccurate or
misleading results.

● It is essential to minimize sample bias to

ensure the validity and generalizability
of research findings to the broader In the scenario of studying the effects of studying on test scores, an
example of sampling bias could be if only high-achieving students
population. volunteer to participate in the study. This would bias the sample
towards students who are already motivated and likely to perform well
academically, potentially skewing the results and making them less
representative of the entire student population.
Generalizability the extent to which
research findings obtained from a sample can
be applied or generalized to a larger
population.
In the scenario of studying the effects of studying on test scores,
● It reflects the degree of confidence generalizability would relate to how well the findings from the study
can be applied to the larger population of students. If the sample used
researchers have in extending their in the study is representative of the broader student population in
terms of demographics, academic performance, and other relevant
conclusions beyond the specific factors, then the results are more likely to be generalizable. However, if
the sample is biased or limited in some way, such as only including
individuals or cases studied. high-achieving students, then the generalizability of the findings may be
limited to that specific subgroup and may not accurately reflect the
experiences of all students. Therefore, ensuring a diverse and
representative sample is crucial for achieving generalizability in
research.
Statistics A large amount of data can be
collected in research studies. Psychologists
need to make sense of the data.

Statistics is a tool to turn data into

information:
● Organize & describe in a meaningful
way.
● Used to make predictions about a
population of interest.
Psychology majors typically spend more time studying statistics and
research methods than almost any other undergraduate major.
 Descriptive Statistics-Describe Inferential Statistics-Generalization

Descriptive statistics refer to numerical

measures used to summarize and describe
the characteristics of a dataset.

These statistics help in organizing and

presenting large amounts of data in a
meaningful and concise way.
 Descriptive Statistics-Describe Inferential Statistics-Generalization

Descriptive statistics refer to numerical Inferential statistics involves using data

measures used to summarize and describe from a sample to make inferences or
the characteristics of a dataset. predictions about a larger population.

These statistics help in organizing and Allow researchers to draw conclusions and
presenting large amounts of data in a make generalizations about the population
meaningful and concise way. based on the sample data.
Measures of Central Tendency statistical
tools used to describe the central or Mean
average value of a set of data.

● They provide a single value that Median

represents the "center" or typical value
of a distribution. Mode
Mean a measure of central tendency in
statistics that represents the average value 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
of a set of data.
To calculate the mean, add up all the
● It is calculated by adding up all the numbers and then divide by the total
values in the data set and then dividing count of numbers. For this dataset:
the sum by the total number of values.
(10 + 15 + 20 + 25 + 30) / 5 = 20

So, the mean of this dataset is 20

Median a measure of central tendency in
statistics that represents the middle value of 15, 25, 30, 10, 20
a data set when the values are arranged in
ascending or descending order.
To calculate the median, you first need to
arrange the data points in ascending
● To find the median, the data set is ordered,
order.
and the middle value is identified.
10, 15, 20, 25, 30
● If there is an even number of values, the
median is calculated as the average of the Since there are five data points, the
two middle values. middle value would be the third number,
which is 20. Therefore, the median is 20.
Mode a measure of central tendency in
statistics that represents the most frequently 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
occurring value in a data set.
In this case, each value appears only once,
● A data set may have one mode so there is no mode.
(unimodal), multiple modes
(multimodal), or no mode if all values
occur with the same frequency.
Range represents the difference between
the highest and lowest values in a data set. 10, 15, 20, 25, 30
● To calculate the range, one subtracts Subtract the smallest value from the largest
the lowest value from the highest value in the data set. In this case, the smallest
value. value is 10 and the largest value is 30.

Range = Largest Value - Smallest Value

● It provides a simple way to assess the
Range = 30 - 10
spread or variability of the data by Range = 20
quantifying the distance between the
extremes. So, the range of the data set is 20
Normal Curve or Bell Curve the
majority of the data falls near the center, or
mean, of the distribution, with progressively
fewer values occurring further away from
the mean in both directions.
Regression to the Mean is when extreme
scores tend to get closer to the average
when measured again. This happens because
extreme scores are often due to temporary
factors, not lasting characteristics.

● It's important in psychology to

understand that extreme behaviors or
performances may not be as consistent
over time.
Positive Skew the majority of the data
clusters on the left side, with the tail
extending towards the right, suggesting the
presence of outliers or unusually high values.
A positive skew
has a tail that
goes to the
right.
Negative Skew the bulk of the data
clusters on the right side, with the tail
extending towards the left, suggesting the
presence of outliers or exceptionally low
values.
A negative skew
has a tail that
goes to the left.
Standard Deviation a way to measure
how spread out or close together numbers
are in a group.

● Standard deviation measures how spread

out the scores are from the average, or
mean. If the standard deviation is small, it
means most scores are close to the
average. But if it's large, it means the
scores are more spread out.

σ (sigma) stands in for the symbol for standard deviation

Percentile Rank a statistical measure that
indicates the percentage of scores in a
distribution that are equal to or below a
particular value.

● It is commonly used to compare an

individual's score with those of a larger
group or population.
Bimodal Distribution type of data
Mode
distribution in which there are two distinct
peaks or high points on a histogram or Mode
frequency distribution graph.

● This indicates that the data has two modes,

or values that occur most frequently.

Bimodal distribution helps us understand when data

● It suggests that the data is not evenly
doesn't just have one main group, but two distinct
distributed and may represent two distinct ones, showing us interesting patterns in the
groups or phenomena within the dataset. information we're looking at.
Statistical Significance the likelihood that
observed results in a research study are not
due to chance.
● Statistical significance is typically assessed
using statistical tests such as t-tests is
represented by a p-value.

● A p-value below a certain threshold (often

set at 0.05) indicates that the observed
results are unlikely to have occurred by
chance alone and are therefore considered
statistically significant.
Effect Sizes
● A large effect size indicates a substantial While statistical significance shows
difference or relationship, suggesting that that an effect exists in a study,
the independent variable has a practical significance shows that the
considerable impact on the dependent effect is large enough to be
variable meaningful in the real world.
Statistical significance is denoted by
● A small effect size indicates a minimal
p values, whereas practical
difference or relationship, indicating that
significance is represented by effect
the independent variable has a limited
effect on the dependent variable. sizes.
Meta Analysis the statistical analysis of
multiple research studies on the same topic
to draw overall conclusions.

● It combines data from various studies

to increase the overall sample size and
statistical power.
Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) are
committees responsible for reviewing and
approving research proposals to ensure that
they meet ethical standards and protect the
rights and welfare of research participants.

● IRBs are typically composed of a diverse

group of professionals, including researchers,
ethicists, and community members.
Proposal Submission: Researchers submit their research proposal to the IRB for review.

Initial Review: The IRB conducts an initial review to ensure the proposal meets ethical guidelines and regulations.

Ethical Assessment: The IRB evaluates the proposed research potential risks and benefits to participants.

Feedback and Revision: If necessary, researchers may need to revise their proposal based on feedback from the
IRB.

Final Approval: Once satisfied with the revisions, the IRB grants final approval for the research to proceed.

Ongoing Oversight: The IRB continues to monitor the research to ensure ongoing compliance with ethical
standards.
Protect Participants from Harm
emphasizes the obligation of researchers to
minimize risks and ensure the well-being of
research participants throughout the study
process.

● Researchers must carefully assess

potential risks associated with the study
procedures and take appropriate steps to
mitigate or minimize these risks.
Protect Participants from Harm
emphasizes the obligation of researchers to
minimize risks and ensure the well-being of
research participants throughout the study
process.

● Researchers must carefully assess The Stanford Prison Experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo in 1971.
The study, which aimed to investigate the psychological effects of perceived
potential risks associated with the study power and authority in a simulated prison environment, quickly devolved into a
situation of extreme psychological distress and abuse. Participants assigned to
procedures and take appropriate steps to the roles of guards began exhibiting dehumanizing behavior towards those
designated as prisoners, leading to the premature termination of the experiment
mitigate or minimize these risks. after only six days. This study serves as a stark reminder of the ethical imperative
to safeguard participants' well-being in research settings, emphasizing the critical
need for ethical oversight and adherence to guidelines to prevent harm.
Informed Consent the process through
which individuals voluntarily agree to
participate in a research study after being
provided with comprehensive information
about the study's purpose, procedures, risks,
benefits, and their rights as participants.
Informed Consent

● Researchers are required to obtain

informed consent from participants
before their involvement in the study,
and participants have the right to
withdraw from the study at any time The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is a stark example of the need for informed
consent in research. In this study, conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service
without penalty. between 1932 and 1972, African American men with syphilis were enrolled
without their informed consent and were not provided with proper treatment,
even after penicillin became available as a cure. As a result, participants suffered
severe health consequences, including blindness, paralysis, and death. This study
highlighted the importance of ensuring that participants fully understand the
purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of research before consenting to
participate. Informed consent serves to protect the rights and well-being of
research participants and is essential for ethical research conduct.
Informed Assent similar to informed
consent but specifically applies to research
involving children or individuals who may
have limited decision-making capacity, such as
those with cognitive impairments or
developmental disabilities.
 Informed Consent
Informed Assent
Informed consent typically refers to the agreement given
by adults who are legally able to make decisions for
● Informed assent involves providing themselves.
these individuals with age-appropriate
or understandable information about Informed Assent
the research study, including its
Informed assent applies to individuals who may not have
purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits. the legal capacity to give full consent, such as minors or
individuals with cognitive impairments. informed assent
is often accompanied by consent from a legally
authorized representative, such as a parent or guardian,
who provides permission for the individual to
participate.
Confidentiality It requires researchers to
handle sensitive data and personal
information obtained during the study with
the utmost discretion and confidentiality.

● This means that researchers must take

measures to ensure that participants'
identities and responses are kept confidential
and protected from unauthorized access or
disclosure.
Confidentiality It requires researchers to
handle sensitive data and personal
information obtained during the study with
the utmost discretion and confidentiality.

● This means that researchers must take

measures to ensure that participants' The importance of protecting individuals involved in case studies is
identities and responses are kept confidential the case of "Genie," a pseudonym given to a girl who suffered
extreme neglect and abuse during her childhood. Genie's case
and protected from unauthorized access or attracted significant attention from researchers eager to study her
disclosure. development and language acquisition abilities. However, to protect
her privacy and well-being, researchers took extensive measures
to maintain her anonymity, using pseudonyms and ensuring that
her identity was not disclosed to the public.
Deception In psychology, deception may
involve misleading participants about the
true purpose or nature of the study, the
procedures involved, or the expected
outcomes.

● While deception is sometimes necessary

to achieve research objectives, it must be
used sparingly and justified by compelling
scientific or ethical reasons.
Deception In psychology, deception may
involve misleading participants about the
true purpose or nature of the study, the
procedures involved, or the expected
outcomes.

● While deception is sometimes necessary In the Milgram study, participants were led to believe that they were
to achieve research objectives, it must be administering electric shocks to another person as part of a learning
experiment. In reality, the "shocks" were not real, and the person
used sparingly and justified by compelling receiving them was an actor pretending to be in pain. The study aimed to
investigate obedience to authority figures, but the participants were
scientific or ethical reasons. deceived about the true nature of the experiment, potentially causing
psychological distress. This example highlights the ethical dilemma of
using deception in research and underscores the importance of carefully
considering its necessity and potential impact on participants.
Confederates Confederates are individuals
who are part of a research study but are
actually working in collaboration with the
researcher and are aware of the true
purpose of the study.
Debriefing providing participants with
comprehensive information about the true
nature, purpose, and procedures of a
research study immediately after their
participation.

● Debriefing allows participants to reflect

on their experience, ask questions, and
provide feedback to researchers.
Debriefing providing participants with
comprehensive information about the true
nature, purpose, and procedures of a
research study immediately after their
participation.

The Little Albert experiment conducted by John B. Watson and

● Debriefing allows participants to reflect Rosalie Rayner in 1920. In this study, a young boy named Albert was
conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing its presence with a loud,
on their experience, ask questions, and startling noise. The experiment caused significant distress to Albert, who
developed a fear not only of the rat but also of similar furry objects. The
provide feedback to researchers. study lacked proper informed consent and debriefing procedures, as
Albert's mother was not fully informed of the nature of the study, and
Albert was not debriefed or treated for his fear after the experiment.
This example underscores the importance of ethical considerations such
as informed consent and debriefing in psychological research to prevent
harm to participants.
Ethical Dilemmas: Navigating Research
Protocols
● Review the provided scenarios,
each detailing a research proposal.
● As a group imitating the
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
board, discuss and analyze each
scenario carefully.