6- Discovery of the components of the atom
6-1- The Electron
Faraday's Electrolysis Experiment 1833
Scientist Faraday performed the electrolysis of copper sulfate (CuSO4) compound. He placed
this solution in a glass beaker and then submerged two electric electrodes, a positive electrode
(+) and a negative electrode (-), into it. He observed the following:
- Copper atoms deposited at the negative electrode (-).
- Oxygen gas was released at the positive electrode (+).
- The blue color of the solution vanished, turning into a slightly reddish liquid.
Faraday discovered that atoms contain positive and negative particles that are arranged according to
their charges in an electric current. This contradicted Dalton's theory that the atom is an indivisible
sphere, as he demonstrated that atoms carry charges.
William Crookes' Experiment - 1879
William Crookes conducted his experiments using a glass tube evacuated of almost all air
(under very low pressure of about 10-6 atm), known as the cathode ray tube. Inside the tube,
he placed two metal pieces called electrodes, which were connected to a high-voltage
electrical source. When the voltage difference reaches 15,000 volts, the screen becomes
luminous.
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Conclusions:
• At low voltage differences, the gas remains a non-conductor of electricity due to the
neutral nature of its atoms. However, it becomes a conductor under low pressure
when exposed to a high voltage difference.
• Under high voltage and low pressure inside the tube, one of the electrodes emits small
particles that collide with gas molecules, leading to a glow on the tube's wall known as
Cathode Rays.
• When a metallic object is placed in the path of the cathode rays, it forms a silhouette
on the screen. This implies that the rays move in straight lines and travel from the
cathode to the anode, as the shadow forms at the anode.
- When a fan or a paddle wheel is placed between the electrodes in the path of the
cathode rays, the latter starts to rotate. From this observation, we can conclude that
these rays consist of particles with kinetic energy and thus possess mass.
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- when replacing the gas with another gas (resulting in a change in the color of the light beam),
the cathode rays maintain their behavior. This indicating their interaction within all
substances.
[Link]'s experiment 1895
Thomson utilized the same Crookes apparatus and conducted several experiments with it,
including:
a) Thomson used a magnetic induction field (B) to deflect a bundle of electrons
downward due to the magnetic force (𝐹𝑚). The magnetic force (𝐹𝑚) is given by 𝐹⃗𝑚 =
𝑞𝑣𝛽, where 𝑞 is the electric charge, 𝑣 is the velocity of the charge, and 𝛽 is the strength
of the magnetic field.
b) Thomson made a slight modification by introducing a positively charged capacitor plate
(anode) into this apparatus. Through this experiment, Thomson noticed that the cathode
rays were deflected towards the positively charged anode of the capacitor due to the
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electric force 𝐹⃗𝑒 (𝐹𝑒 = 𝑞𝐸), indicating that they carried a negative charge. Here, 𝑞 is the
electric charge and 𝐸 is the electric field strength.
c) When the electron bundle is subjected to both an electric field 𝐸 and a magnetic field
𝛽 simultaneously, the electrons experience an upward electric force and a downward
magnetic force. By adjusting the value of the magnetic field strength, the two forces can
be balanced, resulting in a net force of zero. This equilibrium condition causes the electron
bundle to return to its straight path, as indicated by the glowing spot at the center of the
screen.
This figure illustrates the aforementioned:
we have: 𝑞𝑣𝛽 = 𝑞𝐸
Since the charge 𝑞 is the electron's charge, we can substitute it with 𝑒. This relationship allows
us to calculate the electron's velocity:
𝑣 = 𝐸/𝛽
By substituting the electric field 𝐸 with the voltage difference 𝑉 over the distance 𝑑 between
the plates, we obtain:
𝑒. 𝑉
𝑒. 𝜗. 𝛽 =
𝑑
And given our knowledge of the kinetic energy provided to the electrons through the voltage
difference, using the equation:
eV = ½ m 𝜗 2
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By substituting this into the previous equation, we get:
𝑚. 𝜗 2
𝑒. 𝜗. 𝛽 =
2𝑑
In summary, through simplification, we obtain:
𝑚. 𝜗
𝑒. 𝛽 =
2𝑑
By rearranging the equation, we have:
𝑒 𝜗
=
𝑚 2. 𝛽. 𝑑
Where e is the charge of the electron, m is its mass, 𝜗 is the velocity of electrons, B is the value
of the magnetic field, and d is the distance between the plates generating the electric field.
Thomson was able to calculate the value of the ratio between the charge of the electron and
its mass, which is equal to:
𝑒
= 1.758. 108 𝐶/𝑔
𝑚
It was discovered that this ratio does not change with the change of the gas used or the
cathode material, and therefore, it is the main component of atoms of any substance. Since
the ratio is very large, it was concluded that these particles are very small.
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