INDEX

1. Theory 03 - 40

2. Exercise 41 - 49

3. Answers Key 50
 THEORY
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 3

Reproductive System

1. Human Reproduction
● In human beings, sexes are separate and sexual reproduction takes place.
● Sex organs: Humans are unisexual, which refers to the condition of an organism or species being capable of producing only
male or female gametes (sex cells), but never both. A unisexual organism of a bisexual species is one in which the male and
female gonads are found in separate individuals. The reproductive system in each sex has many organs. These sex organs are
further distinguished into primary and secondary sex organs. Besides these, there are some accessory sexual characters
as well.
● Primary sex organs: Gonads which form the gametes are called primary sex organs. These are testes in males and ovaries in
females. The testes produce sperms and secrete testosterone. The ovaries produce ova.
● Secondary sex organs: Sex organs, glands and ducts which do not produce gametes but are otherwise essential for sexual
reproduction are called secondary sex organs. In males, the secondary sex organs are vasa efferentia, epididymis, vas
deferens, ejaculatory ducts, urethra, accessory sex glands (prostate gland, seminal vesicles and Cowper’s glands) and penis. In
females, the secondary sex organs include oviduct, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, Bartholin’s glands and
mammary glands.
● Accessory / External / Secondary sex characters: These are traits that do not have any direct role in reproduction but provide
specific features in the two sexes. In males, secondary sex characters include beard, moustaches, body hair on shoulder and
chest, pubic hair, larynx apparent externally and a low-pitched voice. In females, secondary sex characters include a high-
pitched voice, breast development, broader pelvis, pubic hair and menstruation.
● Puberty: Beginning of sexual maturity or ability to reproduce is known as puberty. Puberty occurs at the age of 10-14 years in
girls and 13-15 years in boys. After attaining puberty, many reproductive events occur in the body of males and females.
 4 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

● The reproductive events in humans include:

● Gametogenesis: Formation of gametes i.e., formation of sperms in males and formation of ovum in females.
● Insemination: Transfer of sperms into the female genital tract.
● Fertilization: Fusion of male and female gametes leading to formation of zygote.
● Implantation: Process of formation and development of blastocyst and its attachment to the uterine wall.
● Gestation: Embryonic development that takes place in the mother’s body.
● Parturition: Process of delivery of the baby.
There are remarkable differences between the reproductive events in males and females. For example, sperm formation
continues even in old men, but formation of ovum ceases in women around the age of fifty years.

2. The Male Reproductive System

Fig 3.1 Male reproductive system (side view)

Fig 3.2 Male Reproductive system (sectional view from the front)
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 5

● The male reproductive system is located in the pelvic region.

● It includes a pair of testes along with accessory ducts, glands and the external genitalia.

2.1 Scrotum

Fig 3.3 Anatomy of scrotum

● The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called scrotum. The scrotum helps in maintaining the low
temperature of the testes (2–2.5oC lower than the normal internal body temperature) necessary for spermatogenesis.
● The testes descend into the scrotum during the seventh month of pregnancy of the mother.
● The scrotum remains connected to the abdomen or pelvic cavity by the inguinal canal.
● The spermatic cord formed from the spermatic artery, vein and nerve bound together with connective tissues runs from the
deep inguinal ring down to each testicle. Testes are suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic cords.
● A fibrous cord, called gubernaculum, extends from the caudal end of the testes to the scrotal wall.

2.2. Testis

Fig 3.4 Longitudinal section of testes

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● In adults, each testis is oval in shape, with a length of about 4 to 5 cm and a width of about 2 to 3 cm.
● The testis is covered by a dense fibrous covering. Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules.
● Each lobule contains 1-3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms are produced.
● Each seminiferous tubule is lined on its inside by two types of cells called male germ cells (spermatogonia) and Sertoli cells.
● The male germ cells undergo meiotic divisions finally leading to sperm formation, while Sertoli cells provide nutrition to the
germ cells.
● The regions outside the seminiferous tubules called interstitial spaces, contain small blood vessels and interstitial cells or
Leydig cells.
● Leydig cells synthesize and secrete testicular hormones called androgens. Other immunologically competent cells are
also present.
● The testes are surrounded by three layers:
● Tunica vaginalis: The tunica vaginalis is the pouch of serous membrane. It is the outermost covering of the testes.
● Tunica albuginea: It is the fibrous covering surrounding the testes situated under tunica vaginalis.
● Tunica vasculosa: It consists of a network of capillaries supported by delicate connective tissue which lines
● tunica albuginea.
● The seminiferous tubules of the testes open into the vasa efferentia through the rete testis.
● The vasa efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis located along the posterior surface of each testis.

Fig 3.5 Diagrammatic sectional view of seminiferous tubule

Differences between Leydig Cells and Sertoli Cells

Leydig Cells Sertoli Cells
(Interstitial Cells) (Sustentacular Cells)
They are present in between the They are present in between the germinal
1. 1.
seminiferous tubules. epithelial cells of the seminiferous tubules
Leydig cells are found in small groups Sertoli cells are found singly and are
2. 2.
and are rounded in shape elongated.
They provide nourishment to the developing
spermatozoa (sperms). Sertoli cells secrete
They secrete androgens (e.g., ABP (Androgen Binding Protein) that
3. 3.
testosterone) - male sex hormones. concentrates testosterone in the seminiferous
tubules. It also secretes another protein
inhibin which suppresses FSH synthesis

● Functions of testes
● The germinal epithelial cells of seminiferous tubules produce sperms and the process is called spermatogenesis.
● Leydig cells produce male sex hormones e.g., testosterone.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 7

2.3. Epididymis
● It is a mass of long narrow closely coiled tubule which lies along the inner side of testes.
● At the anterior end of testes, the epididymis is called caput where the vasa efferentia opens.
● The middle part of epididymis is called corpus epididymis.
● The posterior end of epididymis is called cauda epididymis.
● The epididymis stores the sperms and also secrete a fluid which is considered to nourish the sperms.

2.4. Vasa Deferentia (Ductus Deferens)

● The epididymis leads to vas deferens that ascends to the abdomen and loops over the urinary bladder.
● It receives a duct from the seminal vesicle and opens into the urethra as the ejaculatory duct.
● These ducts store and transport the sperms from the testis to the outside through urethra.
● The male sex accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymis and vas deferens.

2.5. Ejaculatory Duct

Fig 3.6 Ejaculatory duct

● The ejaculatory ducts are two short tubes, each formed by the union of ducts of the seminal vesicles and vas deferens.
● Ejaculatory ducts carry sperm and the secretions of seminal vesicles.

2.6. Urethra
 8 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Fig 3.7 Different parts of urethra

● The urethra originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to its external opening called urethral meatus.
● Urethra is divided into three parts
● Prostatic urethra, which arises from the urinary bladder and carries urine only. In the posterior part of the
prostatic urethra, is the urethral crest where the prostatic ductules open up on either side, bringing the prostatic fluid
into the urethral lumen. Inferior to this is the seminal colliculus, where the ejaculatory duct opens into the
prostatic urethra.
● Membranous urethra, which is the smallest part is situated behind the lower part of pubic symphysis.
● Penile urethra, also known as the spongy urethra, is the longest and the most distal part of the urethra in males. It is
situated inside the penis and it opens into the external environment through the external urethral orifice.

● There are two urethral sphincters. They are:

● Internal sphincter consists of smooth muscle fibers and is present in the neck of the bladder.
● External sphincter consists of striated muscle fibers surrounding the membranous urethra. The membranous urethra is
surrounded by the external urethral sphincter and this sphincter controls the voluntary control of urine flow.
● It provides a common pathway for the flow of urine as well as semen.

● The duct system of the male reproductive system is as follows:

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 9

Fig 3.8 Duct system of the male reproductive system

2.7. Penis
● It is the male copulatory organ and is also called the male genitalia.
● The tip of the penis is called glans penis which consists of a slit-like opening called the external urethral orifice or
urogenital aperture.
● The glans penis is covered by a loose fold of skin called the prepuce or foreskin.
● Penis is made up of three cylindrical masses of erectile tissues, which are - two dorsal corpora cavernosa and one ventral
corpora spongiosum.
● Corpora spongiosum contains penile urethra which is enlarged at the end of the penis called glans penis.
● Penis conducts the urine from the body and transfers the semen into the reproductive tract of females during
sexual intercourse.

Fig 3.9 Structure of penis or male genitalia

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2.8. Male Accessory Glands

Fig 3.10 Accessory glands of the male reproductive system

2.8.1. Seminal Vesicles
● They are a pair of sac-like structures near the base of the urinary bladder.
● They produce an alkaline secretion with pH of 7.4 which form 60% of the volume of semen.
● The seminal fluid contains fructose, hormones like prostaglandins and clotting factors.
● The seminal fluid helps in nourishment as fructose is a source of energy for sperm, and also the alkaline nature of this fluid
neutralizes the acidic environment of the urethra as well as that of the female reproductive tract.

2.8.2. Prostate Gland

● It is a single large gland that surrounds the urethra.
● It produces a milky secretion with pH of 6.5 which forms 25% of the volume of semen.
● This secretion contains citric acid (a sperm nutrient), enzymes (such as acid phosphatase, amylase) and prostaglandins.
● Secretions of prostate gland nourishes and activates the spermatozoa to swim.

2.8.3. Bulbourethral Gland (Cowper’s gland)

● They are present on either side of the membranous urethra.
● These glands secrete an alkaline fluid.
● They secrete mucus that lubricates the end of penis and lining of the urethra.

2.8.4. Seminal Plasma

● Secretions of these glands constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose, calcium and certain enzymes. The
secretions of bulbourethral glands also help in the lubrication of the penis.

Gland Secretions Function

 Fructose  Nourishment of sperms
Seminal Vesicles  Prostaglandins Neutralizes the acidity of urethra and female
Clotting proteins reproductive tract
 Citric acid
 Enzymes such as acid
 Nourishment of sperms
Prostate Gland phosphatase and
 Helps in motility of the sperm
amylase
 Prostaglandins
 Lubrication of penis and lining of
Bulbourethral Glands  Mucus
urethra
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 11

2.9. Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive System

Fig 3.11 Hormonal control of male reproductive system

● GnRH (Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone), secreted by the hypothalamus, stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
to secrete LH and FSH.
● In males, LH is also called the interstitial cell stimulating hormone because it stimulates interstitial cells of the testes to
● secrete androgens.
● Testosterone is the principal androgen which stimulates the growth of secondary sex organs and accessory glands.
● FSH stimulates Sertoli cells of testes to produce androgen binding protein (ABP) that concentrates testosterone in
seminiferous tubules.
● Sertoli cells also secrete a protein called inhibin which suppresses FSH synthesis.
● Testosterone suppresses the release of GnRH and LH when not required.

3. Female Reproductive System

Fig 3.14 Sectional view of the female reproductive system

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● The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries along with a pair of oviducts, the uterus, a cervix, vagina and the
external genitalia located in the pelvic region.

Fig 3.15 Sectional view of female pelvis showing the reproductive system

● These parts of the system along with a pair of the mammary glands are integrated structurally and functionally to support the
processes of ovulation, fertilization, pregnancy, birth and child care.

3.1. Ovaries

Fig 3.16 Ovaries: Primary sex organs in females

● The ovaries are the primary sex organs located on each side of the lower abdomen.
● Ovaries produce the female gamete (ovum) and several steroid hormones (ovarian hormones).
● Each ovary is about 2-4 cm in length and is connected to the pelvic wall and uterus by ovarian ligaments.
● Each ovary is covered by a layer of cuboidal epithelium called germinal epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma.
● Beneath the epithelium is tunica albuginea - a layer of connective tissues. Underlying it, is the ovarian stroma.
● The ovarian stroma consists of a dense outer portion called cortex and a less dense inner portion called medulla.
● Interspersed throughout the cortex are the many ovarian follicles in various stages of development.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 13

3.2. Oviduct or Fallopian Tube

● Each fallopian tube is 10-12 cm long and extends from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus. Oviducts consist of the
following parts:
● Infundibulum: The distal part of the oviduct closer to the ovary is the funnel-shaped infundibulum. The edges of the
infundibulum possess finger-like projections called fimbriae, which help in collection of the ovum after ovulation.
● Ampulla: It is the widest and longest part of the infundibulum.
● Isthmus: It is a short, narrow and thick-walled proximal part of the oviduct that follows ampulla and joins the uterus.
● Functions
● It transfers the ova from the ovary to the uterus through peristalsis.
● The fertilization of ovum takes place in the ampulla of the fallopian tube.

3.3. Uterus or Womb

Fig 3.17 Uterus in female reproductive system

● The uterus (Greek: hystera) is a hollow, muscular and inverted pear-shaped structure. It lies in the pelvic cavity between the
urinary bladder and rectum. It comprises of three parts:
● Fundus: It is the dome shaped part of the uterus above the openings of the uterine parts of the fallopian tube.
● Body: It is the main part of the uterus which narrows interiorly where it continues to form cervix.
● Cervix: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The cavity of the cervix is known as the cervical canal
which, along with vagina, is called the birth canal.
● The cervix communicates above with the body of the uterus through internal os and with the vagina below an opening called
the external os.
● The wall of the uterus is composed of three layers of tissues. These are:
● Perimetrium - the outer thin covering of peritoneum.
● Myometrium - the middle thick layer of smooth muscle fibers which show strong contraction during the delivery
● of a baby.
● Endometrium - the inner glandular layer that lines the uterine cavity. This layer undergoes cyclical changes during the
menstrual cycle.
● Functions
● After puberty, the uterus undergoes changes as part of the menstrual cycle on a monthly basis.
● If fertilization takes place, the embryo gets attached to the uterine wall where it is nourished and protected.

3.4. Vagina
● It is a narrow stretchable tube, about 10 cm long that extends from the cervix to the outside of the body. The opening of the
vagina is called the vaginal orifice.
 14 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

● Functions
● It provides a passageway for the flow of menstrual blood.
● It serves as a receptacle for sperm during intercourse.
● It forms a part of the birth canal during childbirth.

3.5. External Genitalia/ Vulva

Fig 3.18 Female external genitalia

● The female external genitalia include mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and clitoris.
● Mons pubis is the anterior most portion of the female external genitalia, which is covered by skin and pubic hair.
● Labia majora are the two fleshy folds of skin forming the boundary of the vulva. They are partly covered with pubic hair and
contain a large number of sebaceous glands. They are homologous to the male scrotum.
● Labia minora are two smaller folds of skin which lie under the labia majora. Labia minora is partially homologous to the
penile urethra of males.
● The area between the two folds of the labia minora is called the vestibule which is homologous to the membranous urethra
of males.
● Clitoris is posterior to the mons pubis. It contains erectile tissues and is homologous to glans penis in males.
● Hymen: The opening of vagina is called the vaginal orifice. It is partly covered by hymen.
Differences between Male and Female Urethra

Male Urethra Female Urethra

It is much longer (About 20 cm in length) It is short (about 4 cm in length)

1. 1.

It has three regions: Prostatic (3-4cm), It is not differentiated into regions.

2. membranous (1cm) and penial (15cm) 2.

It opens out at the tip of the penis by It opens by urinary aperture in front of
3. urinogenital aperture. 3. vaginal aperture.
It carries both urine and semen. It carries only urine.
4. 4.

3.6. Mammary Glands

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 15

Fig 3.19 Sectional view of female mammary glands

● A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals.

● They are also present in males but only in the rudimentary form.
● In females, the mammary glands remain underdeveloped till puberty and after puberty they begin to develop under the
influence of female sex hormones.
● The mammary glands are paired structures (breasts) that contain glandular tissues and variable amounts of fat.
● Mammary glands are modified sweat glands with a projection called nipple, surrounded by pigmented skin called areola.
● The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing clusters of cells called alveoli.
● The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the cavities (lumen) of alveoli.
● The alveoli open into mammary tubules. The tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.
● Several mammary ducts join to form a wider mammary ampulla which is connected to a lactiferous duct through which milk
is sucked out.
● The main function of the mammary glands is lactation, which refers to secretion and ejection of milk. Lactation is associated
with pregnancy and childbirth.
● Milk production is stimulated largely by the hormone prolactin which is secreted by the anterior lobe of pituitary gland and
milk ejection is stimulated by the hormone oxytocin which is secreted by the posterior lobe of pituitary gland.
● Colostrum is the first form of milk produced by mammary glands of mammals, immediately after the delivery of a newborn.
● Human milk consists of water, organic and inorganic substances. Its main constituents are fats (fat droplets), casein (milk
protein), lactose (milk sugar), mineral salts (calcium, potassium, potassium) and vitamins. Milk is poor in iron content.
Vitamin C is present in very small quantities in milk.
● The flow of milk in the mammary glands of mammals occurs through the following route:

3.7. Vestibular Glands

● Vestibular region of the female's vulva has two types of vestibular glands:
● Lesser vestibular glands (Paraurethral gland/ Skene’s gland) are numerous minute glands on either side of the urethral orifice.
They are homologous to the male prostate gland and secrete mucus.
● Greater vestibular glands (Bartholin’s glands) are paired glands on either side of the vaginal orifice. They are homologous to
the Cowper’s glands in males and they secrete a viscous fluid.
 16 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

3.8. Homologous Organs in Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Female Reproductive Organs Male Reproductive Organs

Labia Majora Scrotum

Labia Minora Penile urethra

Clitoris Glans penis or Penis

Vestibule Membranous urethra

Greater Vestibular Glands Prostate gland

Lesser Vestibular Glands Cowper’s gland

3.9. Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive System

Fig 3.20 Hormonal control of female reproductive system

● GnRh secreted by hypothalamus stimulates the release of FSH and LH by the pituitary gland.
● FSH stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles and increases the development of egg/oocyte within the follicle to complete
Meiosis I to form a secondary oocyte.
● LH secretes corpus luteum to secrete progesterone.
● Rising levels of progesterone inhibit the release of GnRH, which in turn inhibits the release of FSH, LH and progesterone.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 17

4. Gametogenesis

Fig 3.25 Female gamete (egg) and male gamete (sperm)

● Gametogenesis is the process by which male and female sex cells or gametes i.e., sperm and ovum are formed respectively.
● The primary sex organs are the testes in the males and the ovaries in females which produce gametes through the process
of gametogenesis.
● Gametes differ from all other cells of the body as their nuclei contain only half the number of chromosomes found in the
nuclei of somatic cells.
● Meiosis forms the most significant part of the process of gametogenesis.
● Gametogenesis in male is called spermatogenesis while in females it is called oogenesis.
● Gametogenesis in both males and females comprises similar sequential changes that are multiplication phase, growth phase
and maturation phase.

4.1. Stages of Spermatogenesis

Fig 3.26 Schematic representation of spermatogenesis

● Spermatogenesis occurs in the seminiferous tubules of testes which are lined with germinal epithelium. consisting of largely
primordial germ cells.
● One cycle of spermatogenesis takes place for 65-75 days. Spermatogenesis includes two phases:
● Formation of spermatids, which includes the following phases:
● Multiplication phase: At sexual maturity, the undifferentiated primordial germ cells undergo mitosis several times to
form a large number of spermatogonia. Spermatogonia are diploid cells and are of two types i.e., Type A
spermatogonia that serves as stem cells to form additional spermatogonia, and Type B spermatogonia that serve as the
precursor of sperms.
 18 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

● Growth phase: Type B spermatogonia actively divide to form a large primary spermatocyte by obtaining nourishment
from the nurse cells. Primary spermatocytes are diploid cells.
● Maturation phase: Each primary spermatocyte undergoes a meiotic division called maturation division. First meiotic
division leads to formation of two haploid secondary spermatocytes. These secondary spermatocytes undergo second
meiotic division to form four haploid spermatids.
● Formation of spermatozoa from spermatids
● The transformation of spermatid into spermatozoa is called spermiogenesis or spermateleosis. These spermatozoa are
later called spermatozoa or sperms.

● After spermatogenesis, the sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells and are finally released from seminiferous
tubules by the process of spermiation.

Fig 3.27 Diagrammatic sectional view of seminiferous tubules

Differences between Spermatogenesis and Spermiogenesis

Spermatogenesis Spermiogenesis
It is the process of the formation of It is the process of the transformation of
haploid spermatozoa (sperms) from the spermatids into spermatozoa (sperms).
1. 1.
undifferentiated diploid primordial
germ cells of the testes.
It involves multiplication phase, growth It involves only the differentiation
2. phase, maturation phase and 2. phase. Therefore, it is a part of
differentiation phase. spermatogenesis.
A spermatogonium produces four One spermatid develops into one
3. 3.
spermatozoa (sperms). spermatozoon.

4.2. Hormonal Control of spermatogenesis

● Spermatogenesis starts at puberty due to significant increase in the secretion of a hypothalamic hormone which is the
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH).
● The increased level of GnRH then acts on the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates secretion of two gonadotropins –
luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
● LH acts on the Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of androgens. Androgens, in turn, stimulate the
process of spermatogenesis.
● FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of factors which help in the process of spermiogenesis.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 19

4.3. Significance of Spermatogenesis

● During spermatogenesis, one spermatogonium produces four sperms.
● Sperms have half the number of chromosomes as compared to spermatogonia. After fertilization, the diploid chromosome
number is restored in the zygote. It maintains the chromosome number of species.
● During meiosis I, crossing over takes place, which brings about variations.

4.4. Structure of a Human Sperm

Fig 3.28 Structure of a spermatozoa (sperm)

● Sperms are microscopic and motile cells.

● Sperms are alive and retain their ability to fertilize the ovum (eggs) from 24 to 48 hours after having been released in the
female genital tract.
● A typical mammalian sperm consists of head, neck, middle piece and end piece.
● Head: It consists of anterior small acrosome and posterior large nucleus. Acrosome is formed of Golgi bodies of the
spermatid. It contains hyaluronidase proteolytic enzyme called spermalysin that is used to penetrate egg at the time of
fertilization. Another important structure is the nucleus containing a haploid set of chromosomes which can be either
22X or 22Y.
● Neck: It is short and is present between the head and middle piece. It contains a proximal centriole towards the nucleus
which plays an important role in first cleavage of zygote and distal centriole which give rise to axial filament of sperm.
● Middle piece: It contains mitochondria coiled round the axial filament called mitochondrial spiral called Nebenkern
sheath. Mitochondria provides energy for the movement of sperm. Hence, it is called the powerhouse of sperm. Posterior
half of the nucleus, neck and middle piece of the sperm are covered by a sheath called a manchette.
● Tail: The tail is several times longer than the head. In most parts called the middle piece, the axial filament is surrounded
by a thin layer of cytoplasm. The part behind the main piece is called the end piece which consists of naked filament
only. The sperm swims by its tail in the fluid medium.

4.5. Semen
● Sperms released from the seminiferous tubules are transported by the accessory ducts.
● Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and prostate are essential for maturation and motility of sperms. The
seminal plasma along with the sperms constitute the semen.
● The functions of male sex accessory ducts and glands are maintained by the testicular hormones (androgens).
● Semen has a pH of 7.35 to 7.50 and is ejected from the penis during ejaculation. A single ejaculation may contain 200 to 300
million spermatozoa of which 60% must have normal shape and size and at least 40% of them must show rigorous motility
for normal fertility.
20 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

4.6. Oogenesis

Fig 3.29 Schematic representation of oogenesis

● The process of formation of mature female gamete (ovum) is called oogenesis. It occurs inside the ovaries.
● Oogenesis occurs in three phases which are as follows
● Multiplication Phase:
● Multiplication stage of oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a couple of million gamete
mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each foetal ovary; no more oogonia are formed and added after birth.
● Growth Phase:
● Oogonia start division and enter into Prophase-I of the meiotic division and get temporarily arrested at that stage, called
primary oocytes. This phase of primary oocyte is very long and may extend for many years. Each primary oocyte gets
surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells to form a primary follicle.
● Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and is called the primary follicle. A large number
of these follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty. Therefore, at puberty only 60,000-80,000 primary
follicles are left in each ovary.
● Primary oocyte does not complete the first meiotic division and gets arrested in the diplotene stage of the prophase I.
● Maturation Phase:
● Each primary oocyte undergoes two maturation divisions. After puberty is attained, the primary oocyte completes its first
meiotic or maturation division to form a large haploid secondary oocyte and small first polar body so that secondary
oocyte retains the bulk of the nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte.
● The secondary oocyte retains the bulk of the nutrient-rich cytoplasm of the primary oocyte because the secondary oocyte
further develops into ovum that undergoes fertilization and formation of the zygote where the nutrition in bulk is required
for healthy development and growth.
● Secondary oocyte starts the second meiotic or maturation division but does not complete it, rather gets arrested in the
metaphase -II of the second meiotic division and completes it only after the fusion of a sperm with it.
● The formation of the polar body is essential to retain the haploid state of the female gamete. But the polar body only gets
a small amount of cytoplasm so it frequently dies and disintegrates.
● Apart from development of the oocyte, follicles surrounding the oocyte also undergo development to form secondary follicles
then tertiary follicles followed by mature Graafian follicles.

4.7. Hormonal Control of Oogenesis:

● Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) secreted by hypothalamus stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary to secrete LH
and FSH, the gonadotropins.
● FSH stimulates the growth of Graafian follicles and also the development of egg or oocyte within the follicle to complete
meiosis-I to form a secondary oocyte. FSH stimulates the formation of estrogen.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 21

● LH stimulates the rupture of Graafian follicle to release secondary oocytes thus causing ovulation.
● The remaining part of the Graafian follicle is stimulated by LH to form a large yellow temporary endocrine structure called
corpus luteum. Corpus luteum releases a surge of progesterone.
● The rising high level of progesterone inhibits the release of GnRH which in turn, inhibits the production of FSH, LH
and progesterone.

4.8. Significance of Oogenesis

● One oogonium produces one egg and two or three polar bodies.
● Polar bodies have small amounts of cytoplasm. It helps to retain a sufficient amount of cytoplasm in the ovum which is
essential for the development of early embryos. Formation of polar bodies maintains half the number of chromosomes in
the ovum.
● During meiosis, first crossing over takes place which brings about variation.
● Oogenesis occurs in various organisms. Therefore, it supports the basic relationship among the organisms.

4.9. Ovum/Ootid

Fig 3.30 Structure of Ovum

● The mature ovum or female gamete is spherical in shape. It is almost free of yolk and is hence called alecithal.
● The cytoplasm of the ovum is called ooplasm and it contains a large nucleus called the germinal vesicle. The nucleus contains
a prominent nucleolus.
● Centrioles are absent in the cytoplasm of the ovum.
● The cytoplasm is enveloped by a plasma membrane. Very small vesicles called cortical granules are present under
plasma membranes.
● A narrow perivitelline space is present outside the plasma membrane. Just outside the perivitelline space, there is a thick
acellular zona pellucida which is secreted by follicular cells.
● Beyond the zona pellucida, there is a very thick cellular layer called corona radiata made up of radially elongated
follicular cells.
● The side of the ovum that extrudes the polar body is called the animal pole and the side opposite to it is the vegetal pole.
● Human ovum loses its ability to be fertilized about 24 hours after ovulation.
● In humans, the ovum is released from the ovary as a secondary oocyte.

Differences between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis

Spermatogenesis Oogenesis
1. It occurs in the testes 1. It occurs in the ovaries
Spermatogonia changes to primary
2. 2. Oogonia changes to primary oocytes
spermatocytes
A primary spermatocyte divides to A primary oocyte divides to form one
3. 3.
form two secondary spermatocytes. secondary oocyte and one polar body
22 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

A secondary spermatocyte divides to A secondary oocyte divides to form

4. 4.
form two spermatids one ootid and one polar body
5. No polar body is formed 5. Polar bodies are formed
A spermatogonium forms four
6. 6. An oogonium forms one ovum.
spermatozoa
Ova are much larger often with yolk
7. Sperms are minute yolkless and motile 7.
and nonmotile
It is often completed in the female
It is generally completed in the testes
reproductive tract or in many animals
8. and thus mature sperms are released 8.
in water because oocytes are released
from the testes
from the ovaries

4.10. Folliculogenesis

Fig 3.31 Diagrammatic sectional view of ovary

● Folliculogenesis is the maturation of the ovarian follicle, a densely packed shell of somatic cells that contains an immature
oocyte. The credit for the discovery of the ovarian follicles is given to De Graaf.
● The primary oocyte formed after first meiotic division gets surrounded by a layer of flat granulosa cells resulting in a
structure called the primordial follicle. The cells of primordial follicles increase in size and number to form primary follicles.
● All the primary follicles are formed in the foetal stage and no new follicle is formed after the birth. These follicles are located
in the stroma of the ovaries.
● A large number of these follicles degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty by a process called follicular atresia.
Therefore, at the time of puberty only 60,000 - 80,000 primary follicles are left in the ovary. Primary follicles have oocytes
arrested in the diplotene stage of Prophase I.
● The primary follicles get surrounded by more granulosa cells to form secondary follicles. Secondary follicles develop theca
layers and connective tissues. The theca layers are responsible for production of the ovarian hormone, estrogen.
● The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which is characterised by a fluid filled cavity called antrum. The
theca layer is organised into an inner theca interna and an outer theca externa. The primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle
grows in size and completes its first meiotic division. It is an unequal division resulting in the formation of a large haploid
secondary oocyte and a tiny first polar body.
● The tertiary follicle further changes into a mature follicle or Graafian follicle. The secondary oocyte forms a new membrane
called the zona pellucida surrounding it. The Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the
ovary by the process of ovulation.

Description Size
Primordial Dormant, small, only layer of flat granulosa 0.03 - 0.05 mm in diameter
Follicles cells surrounding primary oocyte
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 23

Primary Follicles ● A primary oocyte surrounded by a layer 0.1 mm in diameter

of granulosa cuboidal cells.
● Primary oocyte is arrested at the
diplotene stage of Prophase-I

Secondary ● Primary oocyte surrounded by multiple 0.2 mm in diameter

Follicles layers of granulosa cells.
● Presence of endocrine theca cells and
connective tissue.

Tertiary Follicles ● It has a fully formed antrum (= cave) Range from 0.2 mm to 20 mm in diameter depending on
filled with a fluid called follicular fluid various stages of development
or liquor folliculi.
● The theca layer is organized into inner
theca interna and outer theca externa.
● Primary oocyte completes its first
meiotic division forming a large
secondary oocyte arrested at metaphase
II and a tiny polar body.

Graafian Follicles ● Majority of follicles that started the

(Antral Follicle or growth have died. This is called follicular
late tertiary atresia.
follicle) ● Granulosa cells begin to differentiate into
subtypes.
● Zona pellucida, a translucent matrix of
glycoproteins, surrounds the secondary
oocyte.
● The follicle is filled with a fluid called
antrum.
24 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Corpus Luteum ● Remnant of Graafian follicle turns into a

yellow-coloured body.
● Its life span in non-pregnant females is
for 14 days where it produces
progesterone hormone.
● In pregnant females it lasts until the
placenta is developed i.e., roughly for 4
months.
Corpus albicans ● Regressed form of corpus luteum
● It is a white-coloured structure which is
formed after the attack of macrophages
on corpus luteum.

5. Menstrual Cycle
The events involved in reproduction in female mammals occur in a cyclic manner. Constituting the reproductive cycle or ovarian
cycle. The reproductive cycle is of two types:
● Oestrus Cycle
● Menstrual Cycle

5.1. Oestrus Cycle

● The oestrus cycle consists of a few days of oestrus or “heat” followed by a few days of anoestrus of “quiescence”.
● During oestrus, the female is sexually responsive, allows a male to copulate, eggs are released and pregnancy is possible.
● During anoestrus, females become passive and do not accept a male
● The oestrus occurs in all mammals except primates.
● In non-primate mammals, oestrus occurs in the breeding season only whereas an oestrus spreads over the entire non-
● breeding season.
● During the oestrus cycle, the wall of the uterus does not dissolve i.e., no bleeding takes place.
● Depending upon the number of oestrus cycle in a breeding season, they can be of two types:
● Mono-oestrus cycle: In the breeding period of some animals only one oestrus cycle is present. E.g., rabbit, hare, dog, fox,
bat, deer etc.
● Poly-oestrus cycle: In majority of animals many oestrus cycles occur during the breeding period. E.g., rats, squirrels,
cow, sheep, pig, horse etc.

5.2. Menstrual Cycle

● The reproductive cycle in female primates (e.g., monkeys, apes and human beings) is called menstrual cycle.
● The first menstruation marks the onset of puberty in females and is called menarche.
● In human females, menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29 days, and the cycle of events starting from
one menstruation till the next one is called the menstrual cycle.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 25

Fig 3.32 Menstrual cycle in females

● One secondary oocyte is released (ovulation) during the middle of each menstrual cycle.
● Menstrual cycle is divided into four phases:
● Menstrual Phase or Bleeding Phase
● Follicular Phase or Proliferative Phase
● Ovulatory Phase or Fertility Phase
● Luteal Phase or Secretory Phase

Menstrual Phase (Bleeding Phase)

● The cycle starts with the menstrual phase, which comprises of uterine blood flow lasting for 3-5 days.
● The production of the LH hormone from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is considerably reduced. The withdrawal of
this hormone degenerates the corpus luteum, therefore reducing progesterone production. Estrogen production is
also reduced.
● The low level of progesterone results in menstrual flow that occurs due to breakdown of endometrial lining of the uterus and
its blood vessels, which forms the liquid that comes out through vagina.
● Apart from blood, the cells of the endometrial lining and the unfertilized ovum also constitute menstrual flow.
● Lack of menstruation may be indicative of pregnancy. However, it may also be caused due to some other underlying causes
like stress, poor health etc.

Proliferative Phase (Follicular Phase)

● This phase lasts for 6-13 days. During this phase, the primary follicles in the ovary grow to become a fully mature Graafian
follicle and simultaneously the endometrium of the uterus regenerates through proliferation.
● These changes in the ovary and the uterus are induced by changes in the levels of pituitary and ovarian hormones.
● The secretion of gonadotropins (LH and FSH) increases gradually during the follicular phase, and stimulates follicular
development as well as secretion of estrogens by the growing follicles.

Ovulatory Phase
● It involves ovulation, or release of the female gamete, from the Graafian follicle of ovary.
● The mature Graafian follicle rises to the surface of the ovary and ruptures to release the oocyte. This phenomenon is
26 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

called ovulation.
● It occurs midway between two menstrual cycles on 14 th day of the onset of menstrual cycle due to increasing turgidity and
contraction of smooth muscles fibres around the Graafian follicles.
● The oocyte is received by fimbriae of fallopian tube. The female gamete remains viable for two days.
● Both LH and FSH attain a peak level in the middle of the cycle.
● Rapid secretion of LH leading to its maximum level during the mid-cycle called LH surge induces rupture of the Graafian
follicle and thereby the release of the female gamete.
● Egg, at the time of ovulation, is in the secondary oocyte state. It remains surrounded by its zona pellucida and corona radiata.
● There is not much change in the uterine endometrium during ovulatory phase.

Luteal Phase (Secretory Phase)

● Ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase during which the remaining parts of the Graafian follicle
transform into the corpus luteum.
● The corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone which is essential for maintenance of the endometrium.
● Such an endometrium is necessary for implantation of the fertilized ovum and other events of pregnancy.
● Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive health, and it extends between menarche and menopause.
● During pregnancy, all events of the menstrual cycle stop and there is no menstruation.
● In the absence of fertilization, the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes disintegration of the endometrium leading to
menstruation, marking a new cycle.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 27

Fig 3.33 Diagrammatic presentation of various events during a menstrual cycle

5.3. Effect of Fertilization

● If fertilization occurs and an embryo is implanted in the endometrium, the trophoblast cells of the developing placenta secrete
a hormone called the human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG).
● This hormone, like LH, maintains the corpus luteum and the secretion of progesterone and estradiol by it.
● These two hormones check the breakdown of endometrium of the uterus.
● The absence of menstrual bleeding is the earliest sign of pregnancy.
● By the 16th week of pregnancy, the placenta produces progesterone and estradiol in case of a normal pregnancy. The now
unnecessary corpus luteum undergoes shrinkage.
● Fertilization restores the diploid condition in the zygote and the equational division (meiosis II) is completed only if
fertilization occurs.
● Premature degeneration of corpus luteum is a common cause of miscarriage (abortion) at about 10-12 week of pregnancy.

5.4. Menopause
● In human beings, menstrual cycle and ovulation ceases to occur around 50 years of age. This phenomenon of the cessation of
the menstrual cycle is termed as menopause.
● Menopause is characterized by hot flushes and a number of behavioural changes in women. FSH is secreted in the urine.
28 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Phases Days Events

Endometrium breaks down, menstruation begins.
The cells of endometrium, secretions, blood and the
Menstrual Phase 1-5 unfertilized ovum constitute the menstrual flow.
Progesterone production is reduced. In fact, menstrual
flow is associated with withdrawal of progesterone
Follicular phase Endometrium rebuilds, FSH and estrogen secretion
6 - 13
(Proliferative Phase) increases.
Both LH and FSH attain peak levels. Concentration of
Ovulatory Phase About 14th Day estrogen in the blood is also high and this reaches its
peak. Ovulation occurs.
Luteal Phase Corpus luteum secretes progesterone. Endometrium
15-28
(Secretory Phase) thickens and the uterine glands become secretory.

6. Fertilization
● The fusion of a haploid male gamete (sperm) and a haploid female gamete (ovum) to form a diploid zygote is
called fertilization.
● In human beings, fertilization takes place mostly in the ampulla region of the oviduct.

Fig 3.34 Transport of ovum, fertilization and passage of growing embryo through fallopian tube

Fig 3.35 Steps of fertilization

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 29

6.1 Approach of a Sperm towards the Secondary Oocyte

● During copulation (coitus), the male genitalia discharges around 3.5 ml of semen into the vagina, close to the cervix of the
female reproductive system. This is called insemination.
● The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass through the cervix, enter the uterus and finally reach the ampullary region of the
fallopian tube where fertilization takes place.
● There are as many as 200- 300 million sperms released in the vagina, but only 100 sperms reach the fallopian tubes because
many sperms are either killed by the acidity of the female genital tract or engulfed by phagocytes of the vaginal epithelium.
● The sperms swim in the seminal fluid at the rate of 1-4 mm per minute by the action of the uterus and peristaltic movement of
the fallopian tube.
● Capacitation is the phenomenon of physiological maturation of sperms by breaking down of the acrosome membrane inside
the female genital tract.
● Fertilization can only occur if the ovum and sperm are transported simultaneously to the ampullary region.
● This is the reason why every act of copulation doesn’t lead to fertilization and pregnancy.

6.2. Penetration of Sperm

● The oocyte secretes a chemical substance called fertilizin, which has a number of spermophilic sites as its surface where the
sperm of species-specific type can be bound by their anti-fertilizin site.
● The fertilizin and anti-fertilizin interaction causes agglutination or sticking together of egg and sperm. Penetration of the
oocyte membrane by a sperm occurs by means of a chemical mechanism.
● The acrosome of a sperm undergoes an acrosomal reaction and releases an acidic protein called sperm lysin which dissolves
the egg envelope.
● The sperm lysin contains hyaluronidase which dissolves the hyaluronic acid matrix holding the granulosa cells of the corona
radiata. Acrosin or zona lysin from the acrosome dissolves the zona pellucida.
● A sperm that comes in contact with the zona pellucida layer of the oocyte, induces changes in the oocyte membrane that block
the entry of additional sperms, preventing polyspermy.

6.3. Cortical Reaction

● Immediately after the fusion of the sperm and plasma membrane of the oocyte, the secondary oocyte shows the
cortical reaction.
● In this reaction, the cortical granules present beneath the egg’s plasma membrane fuse with the plasma membrane of the
oocyte and release their contents, including cortical enzymes between the plasma membrane and zona pellucida.
● These enzymes harden the zona pellucida and form a fertilization membrane which prevents the entry of additional
sperms (block of polyspermy).
● Entrance of the sperm induces completion of the second meiotic division in the secondary oocyte, and it turns into an ovum.
● The second meiotic division is also unequal and results in the formation of the second polar body and a haploid ovum (ootid).

6.4. Fusion of Gametic Nuclei

● The head of sperm which contains the nucleus detaches or separates from the middle piece and the sperm tail.
● The egg nucleus or female pronucleus is ready for union with the male pronucleus, which is present within the sperm head.
● The male and female pronuclei fuse together.
● Mixing of the chromosomes of sperm and the ovum is known as karyogamy or amphimixis.
● The fertilized ovum is now called zygote. The zygote is a diploid unicellular cell, which has 46 chromosomes in humans.

6.5. Significance of Fertilization

● It provides a stimulus for the egg to complete its maturation.
● It restores the diploid number of chromosomes, which is 46 in human beings.
● It introduces the centriole which is lacking in mature ova.
● It results in determination of the sex of the embryo. It combines the characteristics of two parents, introducing variations,
hence helping in evolution.
● Fertilization membrane formed after sperm entry checks the entry of additional sperms (block of polyspermy).
30 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

6.6. Sex of the Baby

Fig 3.36 Sex determination in humans

● The sex of the baby is decided at the fertilization stage.

● The sex chromosome pattern in the human female is XX and that in the male is XY.
● Therefore, all the haploid gametes (ova) produced by the female have the sex chromosome X whereas in the male gametes
(sperms) the sex chromosome could be either X or Y. Hence, 50 percent of sperms carry the X chromosome while the other
50 percent carry the Y chromosome. This is called male heterogamety, in which males produce two different types
of gametes.
● After fusion of the male and female gametes the zygote would carry either XX or XY depending on whether the sperm
carrying X or Y fertilized the ovum respectively.
● The zygote carrying XX would develop into a female baby and the one containing XY would form a male.
● That is why, scientifically it is correct to say that the sex of the baby is determined by the father and not by the mother.

7. Embryonic Development
7.1. Cleavage
● Cleavage is a series of rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote which convert single cell zygote into multicellular structure called
blastula (blastocysts).
● About 30 hours after fertilization, the newly formed zygote divides into cells (blastomeres), in the upper portion of the
fallopian tube. This is the first cleavage.
● The next division occurs within 40 hours after fertilization. The third division occurs about three days after fertilization.
● During these early cleavages, the young embryo is slowly moving down the fallopian tube towards the uterus.
● At the end of the fourth day, the embryo reaches the uterus. It has 8-16 blastomeres and this solid mass of cells is known as
morula (little mulberry) as it looks like mulberry.
● When the blastomeres divide completely the cleavage is called holoblastic.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 31

Fig 3.37 Stages of cleavage in zygote

7.2. Significance of Cleavage

● Cleavage brings about:
● The distribution of cytoplasm of the zygote, amongst the blastomeres.
● Increased mobility of the protoplasm which facilitates morphogenetic movements necessary for cell differentiation, germ
layer formation and the formation of organs and tissues.
● The restoration of the cell size and the nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio characteristics of the species.
● Conversion of unicellular zygote into a multicellular embryo.

7.3. Blastocyst (Blastula) and Blastomeres

Fig 3.38 Structure of blastocyst

● At the next stage of development which produces an embryo with about sixty-four cells, a cavity is formed within the
cell mass.
● This cavity is called the blastocyst cavity and the embryo is termed as the blastocyst, which is composed of an outer envelope
of cells, the trophoblast or trophoectoderm and an inner cell mass.
32 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

● The side of blastocyst to which the inner cell mass is attached is called embryonic or animal pole while the opposite side is
abembryonic pole.
● The trophoblast encircles the blastocoel and the inner cell mass.
● The cells of trophoblast help to provide nutrition to the embryo.
● The cells of trophoblast later form extra embryonic membranes namely chorion and amnion and part of the placenta.
● The cells of trophoblast which are in contact with the inner cell mass are called cells of Rauber.

Differences between Morula and Blastula

Morula Blastula (Blastocyst)

It is a solid ball like structure which It is a hollow structure with a

1. 1.
looks like a little mulberry blastocoel/blastocyst cavity in the center

It is formed of an outer nutritive layer, a

2. It is formed of similar type of cells 2.
trophoblast and an inner cell mass

3. Zona pellucida is intact 3. Zona pellucida starts disintegrating

7.4. Implantation
● The process of blastocyst getting embedded in the endometrium of the uterus is called implantation.
● Though the implantation may occur at any period between 6th and 10th day after fertilization but generally it occurs on the
seventh day after fertilization.
● The blastocyst sinks into a pit formed in the endometrium to get completely buried in the endometrium. The embedded
blastocyst forms finger-like projections called villi to get nourishment.
● Zona pellucida becomes thinner and finally disappears. The function of zona pellucida is to prevent implantation at an
abnormal site which could lead to ectopic or extrauterine pregnancy.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 33

Fig 3.39 Implantation of blastocyst in endometrium of uterus

7.5. Significance of Implantation

● It helps in deriving nourishment for the baby from the maternal tissues.
● It ensures that the developing embryo is protected within the uterus.

7.6. Gastrulation
● The blastocyst continues with the development process even when implantation is taking place. Formation of gastrula from
blastula is called gastrulation.
● Gastrulation is defined as the process during which the primary germinal layers namely ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm
are formed by morphological movements.
● Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer layer called ectoderm and an inner
layer called endoderm.
● A mesoderm soon appears between the ectoderm and the endoderm.

Fig 3.40 Gastrulation in embryo

● These three layers give rise to all tissues and organs in adults. The inner cell mass of a blastocyst contains certain cells called
stem cells which have the potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs.
34 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

7.7. Fate of Germ Layers

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Epidermis and skin derivatives Dermis Gut

Cutaneous Glands Muscular Glands Glands of stomach and intestine

Nervous system Connective tissue Tongue

Motor and optic nerve Endoskeleton Lungs, trachea, bronchi

Eye (Retina, lens, cornea) Vascular system (Heart and blood Urinary bladder
vessels)

Conjunctiva and ciliary and iridial muscles Kidney Primordial germ cells

Nasal epithelium Gonads (Testis and ovary) Gills

Internal ear Urinary and genital duct Liver

Lateral line sense organ Coelom and coelomic epithelium Pancreas

Stomodeum Choroid and sclerotic coat of eye Thyroid gland

Salivary gland Adrenal cortex Parathyroid gland

Enamel of teeth Spleen Thymus

Proctodaeum Notochord Middle ear

Pituitary gland Parietal and visceral peritoneum Eustachian tube

Pineal body - Mesenteron

Adrenal medulla - Lining of vagina and urethra

Hypothalamus - Prostate gland

7.8. Extra-Embryonic layers or Foetal Membranes

● The growing embryo or foetus develops four membranes called extra- embryonic or foetal membranes. These include the
amnion, chorion, allantois and yolk sac.
● Chorion: It is made up of trophoblast on the outside and somatopleuric extra embryonic mesoderm on the inside. It
completely surrounds the embryo and protects it. It also takes part in the formation of placenta.
● Amnion: It is composed of trophoblast on the inside and somatopleuric extraembryonic mesoderm outside. The space
between embryo and amnion is called the amniotic cavity which is filled with a clear water fluid secreted by both the embryo
and amniotic membrane. The amniotic fluid prevents desiccation of the embryo and acts as a protective cushion that
absorbs shock.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 35

● Allantois: The allantois is composed of endoderm on the inside and splanchnopleuric extraembryonic mesoderm outside. It is
a sac-like structure which arises from the gut of embryos near the yolk sac.
● Yolk sac: The primary yolk sac consists of endoderm inside and splanchnopleuric extraembryonic mesoderm outside. The
yolk sac is nonfunctional in human beings, except that it acts as a site of early blood cell formation.

Fig 3.41 Extraembryonic or foetal membranes

8. Pregnancy and Gestation

● Pregnancy or gestation period is the time from conception to birth. In human beings, it is approximately 9 months or 280 days
or 80 weeks.

Fig 3.44 Foetus developing in a pregnant female

● Birth normally occurs at a gestational age of about 40 weeks, though it is common for birth to occur between week 37-42 of
the gestation period.
● Human pregnancy can be divided into three trimesters, each approximately three-month long.
36 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

● Gestation period of some animals are given below

S. No. Animal Days

1. Mouse 19-20

2 Rat 20-22

3 Rabbit 28-32

4 Cat 52-65

5 Dog 60-65

6 Pig 112-120

7 Goat 145-156

8 Man 270-290

9 Cow 275-290 (3 weeks)

10 Horse 330-345

11 Elephant 607-641

9. Placenta
● After implantation, finger-like projections appear on the trophoblast, called the chorionic villi which are surrounded by the
uterine tissue and maternal blood.
● The chorionic villi and uterine tissue become interdigitated with each other and jointly form a structural and functional unit
between the developing embryo (foetus) and the maternal body called the placenta.
● The human placenta is chorionic as it is formed only by the chorion.

Fig 3.45 Structure of placenta

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 37

● The function of the placenta is as follows:

● It supplies of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo
● It removes carbon dioxide and excretory/waste materials produced by the embryo.
● It also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), human
placental lactogen (HPL), estrogens, progestogens, etc.
● In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary. HCG, HPL and relaxin are produced
in women only during pregnancy.
● In addition, during pregnancy the levels of other hormones like estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc.,
are increased several folds in the maternal blood.
● Increased production of these hormones is essential for supporting foetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother and
maintenance of pregnancy.
● The placenta is connected to the embryo through an umbilical cord which helps in the transport of substances to and from
the embryo.
● The maternal and foetal blood are not in direct contact in the placenta because:
● The two blood types may be incompatible.
● The maternal blood pressure is far too high for the foetal blood vessels.
● There must be a check on the inflow of harmful materials (blood proteins, germs) into the foetal blood.

9.1. Important Developmental Changes in a Human Embryo

● The human gestation period or pregnancy in humans lasts for 9 months.
● In human beings, after one month of pregnancy, the embryo’s heart is formed. The first sign of a growing foetus may be
noticed by listening to heart sounds carefully through the stethoscope.
● By the end of the second month of pregnancy, the foetus develops limbs and digits. By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester),
most of the major organ systems are formed. For example, the limbs and external genital organs are well developed.
● The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are usually observed during the fifth month.
● By the end of about 24 weeks (end of second trimester), the body is covered with fine hair, the eye-lids separate, and
eyelashes are formed.
● By the end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is ready for delivery.

Fig 3.46 Developmental changes in human embryo

9.2. Development at 4 Weeks

At this point the baby is developing structures that will eventually form their face and neck. The heart and blood vessels continue
to develop. And the lungs, stomach, and liver start to develop. A home pregnancy test would give a positive result at this stage.
38 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Fig 3.47 Foetus development in 4 weeks

9.3. Development at 8 Weeks

The baby is now a little over half an inch in size. Eyelids and ears are forming, and you can see the tip of the nose. The arms and
legs are well formed. The fingers and toes grow longer and more distinct.

Fig 3.48 Foetus development in 8 weeks

9.4. Development at 20 Weeks
The baby weighs about 10 ounces and is a little more than 6 inches long. The baby can suck a thumb, yawn, stretch, and
make faces.

Fig 3.49 Foetus development in 20 weeks

9.5. Development at 24 Weeks

The baby weighs about 1.4 pounds now and responds to sounds by moving or increasing their pulse. Mothers may notice jerking
motions if they hiccup. With the inner ear fully developed, the baby may be able to sense being upside down in the womb.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 39

10. Parturition
● The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months which is called the gestation period.
● Vigorous contraction of the uterus at the end of pregnancy causes expulsion/delivery of the foetus. This process of delivery of
the foetus (childbirth) is called parturition.
● Parturition is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism. The signals for parturition originate from the fully developed
foetus and the placenta, which induce mild uterine contractions called foetal ejection reflex.
● This triggers release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary. Oxytocin acts on the uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine
contractions, which in turn stimulates further secretion of oxytocin.
● The stimulatory reflex between the uterine contractions and oxytocin secretion continues, resulting in increasingly
stronger contractions.
● This leads to expulsion of the baby out of the uterus through the birth canal. This process is called parturition. Soon after the
infant is delivered, the placenta is also expelled out of the uterus.

Fig 3.50 Parturition or childbirth

11. Lactation
● The mammary glands of females undergo differentiation during pregnancy and start producing milk towards the end of
pregnancy by a process called lactation.
● Lactation helps the mother in feeding the newborn. The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called
colostrum which contains several antibodies that are absolutely essential for develop innate immunity in the foetus. It is also
rich in proteins and has a low-fat content, which is required for development of the new-born babies.
● Breast-feeding during the initial period of infant growth is recommended by doctors for bringing up a healthy baby.
40 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Fig 3.51 Colostrum of lactating mother and normal milk

● Composition of human milk
● Human milk consists of water and organic and inorganic substances.
● Its main constituents are fats (fat droplet), casein (milk protein), lactose (milk protein), mineral salts (sodium, potassium,
calcium and phosphorus) and vitamins.
● It is poor in iron content. Vitamin C is also present in very small quantities.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 41

EXERCISE (Basic Exercise) 4. Receptors for sperm binding in mammals

are present on:
Reproductive system
(a) Perivitelline space
1. How many Y-chromosomes are present in
(b) Zona pellucida
the 2nd polar body in human beings?
(c) Corona radiata
(a) 01
(d) Vitelline membrane
(b) 00
5. Which of these is not an important
(c) 23
component of initiation of parturition in
(d) 02
humans?
2. Which of the following hormones are
(a) Release of Oxytocin
secreted in women only during pregnancy?
(b) Release of Prolactin
(a) Relaxin (b) Oxytocin
(c) Increase in estrogen and progesterone
(c) hCG (d) hPL
ratio
(e) Progesterone
(d) Synthesis of prostaglandins
Choose the most appropriate answer from
6. Meiotic division of the secondary oocyte is
the options given below:
completed:
(a) (c), (d) and (e) only
(a) At the time of copulation
(b) (b) and (e) only
(b) After zygote formation
(c) (b), (c) and (d) [Link]
(c) At the time of fusion of a sperm with
(d) (a), (c) and (d) only
an ovum
3. Arrange the following male sex accessory
(d) Prior to ovulation
ducts in the correct sequence for the
7. Which of the following hormone levels
transport of sperms from the tests
will cause release of ovum (ovulation)
(a) Epididymis (b) Ejaculatory duct
from the graffian follicle?
(c) Vasa efferentia (d) Rete testis
(a) High concentration of Progesterone
(e) Vas deferens
(b) Low concentration of LH
Choose the most appropriate answer from
(c) Low concentration of FSH
the options given below:
(d) High concentration of Estrogen
(a) (d), (a), (c), (e), (b)
8. Match the following columns and select
(b) (d), (c), (e), (a), (b)
the correct option.
(c) (d), (c).(a), (e), (b)
Column-I Column-II
(d) (d), (e), (a), (c), (b)
(a) Placenta (i) Androgens
42 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

(b) Zona pellucida (ii) Human chorionic Gonadotropin

Gonadotropin (b) Placenta (ii) Estrogen &
(c) Bulbo-urethral (iii) Layer of the ovum Progesterone
glands (c) Corpus (iii) Androgens
(d) Leydig cells (iv) Lubrication of the luteum
Penis (d) Leydig (iv) Progesterone only
(a) (a) – (i); (b) – (iv); (c) - (ii); (d) - (iii) cells
(b) (a) – (iii); (b) – (ii); (c) - (iv); (d) - (i) (a) (a)-(iv), (b)-(iii), (c)-(ii), (d)- (i)
(c) (a) – (ii); (b) – (iii); (c) - (iv); (d) - (i) (b) (a)-(i), (b)-(ii). (c)-(i), (d)-(iv)
(d) (a) – (iv); (b) – (iii); (c) - (i); (d) - (ii) (c) (a)-(i), (b)-(iii), (c)-(ii), (d)-(iv)
9. In human beings, at the end of 12 weeks (d) (a)-(ii), (b)-(i), (c)-(iv), (d)-(ii)
(first trimester) of pregnancy, the 12. Extrusion of second polar body from egg
following is observed: nucleus occurs:
(a) Eyelids and eyelashes are formed (a) simultaneously with first cleavage
(b) Most of the major organ systems are (b) after entry of sperm but before
formed fertilization
(c) The head is covered with fine hair (c) after fertilization
(d) Movement of the fetus (d) before entry of sperm into ovum
10. Select the correct option of haploid cells 13. Select the correct sequence for transport of
from the following groups: sperm cells in male reproductive system.
(a) Primary oocyte, Secondary oocyte, (a) Testis + Epididymis + Vasa efferentia
Spermatid + Vas deferens + Ejaculatory duct
(b) Secondary spermatocyte, First polar +Inguinal canal Urethra + Urethral meatus
body, Ovum (b) Testis + Epididymis + Vasa efferentia
(c) Spermatogonia, Primary spermatocyte, + Rete testis + Inguinal canal Urethra
Spermatid (c) Seminiferous tubules + Rete testis +
(d) Primary spermatocyte Secondary Vesa efferentia +Epididymus + Vas
spermatocyte, Second polar body deferens + Ejaculatory duct → Urethra +
11. Match the following columns and select Urethral meatus
the correct option: (d) Seminiferous tubules + Vasa efferentia
Column – I Column - II + Epididymis + Inguinal canal → Urethra
(a) Ovary (i) Human chorionic
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 43

14. No new follicles develop in the luteal (a) ectoderm and mesoderm
phase of the menstrual cycle because : (b) endoderm and mesoderm
(a) Follicles do not remain in the ovary (c) mesoderm and trophoblast
after ovulation (d) ectoderm and endoderm
(b) FSH levels are high in the luteal phase 18. Match the items given in Column I with
(c) LH levels are high in the luteal phase those in Column II and select the correct
(d) Both FSH and LH levels are low in the option given below:
luteal phase
15. Hormones secreted by the placenta to Column I Column II
maintain pregnancy are a. Proliferative i. Breakdown of
(a) hCG hPL progesterone, prolactin Phase endometrial lining
(b) hCG, PL, estrogens, relaxin, oxytocin b. Secretory Phase ii. Follicular Phase
(c) hCG, PL progesterone, estrogens c. Menstruation iii. Luteal Phase
(d) hCG, progesterone, estrogens, (a) a-iii, b-ii, c-i
glucocorticoids (b) a-I, b-iii, c-ii
16. The difference between spermiogenesis (c) a-ii, b-iii, c-i
and spermiation is (d) a-iii, b-I, c-ii
(a) In spermiogenesis, spermatids are 19. Capacitation occurs in
formed, while in spermiation spermatozoa (a) rete testis
are formed. (b) epididymis
(b) In spermiogenesis, spermatozoa are (c) vas deferens
formed, while in spermiation spermatids (d) female reproductive tract
are formed. 20. Which of the following depicts the correct
(c) In spermiogenesis, spermatozoa from pathway of transport of sperms ?
Sertoli cells are released into the cavity of (a) Rete testis +Efferent ductules
seminiferous tubules, while in spermiation, +Epididymis + vas deferens
spermatozoa are formed. (b) Rete testis → Epididymis → Efferent
(d) In spermiogenesis, spermatozoa are ductules →vas deference
formed, while in spermiation, spermatozoa (c) Rete testis + Vas deference + Efferent
are released from Sertoli cells into the ductules → Epididymis
cavity of seminiferous tubules. (d) Efferent ductules +Rete testis + Vas
17. The amnion of mammalian embryo is deference +Epididymis
derived from
44 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

21. Match column I with column II and select (b) LH and FSH decrease gradually during
the correct option using the codes given the follicular phase
below (c) LH triggers secretion of androgens
Column I Column II from the Leydig cells
A. Mons pubis 1. Embryo formation (d) FSH stimulates the Sertoli cells which
B. Antrum 2. Sperm help in spermiogenesis
C. Trophectoderm 3. Female external 25. Fertilisation in humans is practically
genitalia feasible only if
D. Nebenkern 4. Graafian follicle (a) the ovum and sperms are transported
(a) A - 3; B - 4; C - 2; D - 1 simultaneously to ampullary-isthmic
(b) A - 3; B - 4; C - 1; D - 2 junction of the fallopian tube
(c) A - 3; B - 1; C - 4; D - 2 (b) the ovum and sperms are transported
(d) A - 1; B - 4; C - 3; D - 2 simultaneously to ampullary-isthmic
22. Several hormones like hCG, HPL, junction of the cervix
oestrogen, progesterone are produced by (c) the sperms are transported into cervix
(a) ovary within 48 hrs of release of ovum in uterus
(b) placenta (d) the sperms are transported into vagina
(c) Fallopian tube just after the release of ovum in fallopian
(d) pituitary tube
23. Identify the correct statement on 'inhibin' 26. Match column I with column II and select
(a) Is produced by granulosa cells in ovary the correct option using the codes given
and inhibits the secretion of FSH below
(b) Is produced by granulosa cells in ovary Column I Column II
and inhibits the secretion of LH A. Mons pubis 1. Embryo formation
(c) Is produced by nurse cells in testes and B. Antrum 2. Sperm
inhibits the secretion of LH C. Trophectoderm 3. Female external
(d) Inhibits the secretion of LH, FSH and genitalia
prolactin D. Nebenker 4. Graafian follicle
24. Select the incorrect statement (a) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1
(a) LH and FSH triggers ovulation in (b) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
ovary (c) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
(d) A-1, B-4, C-3, D-2
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 45

27. Changes in GnRH pulse frequency in (d) birth

females is controlled by circulating levels 32. Which of the following cells during
of gametogenesis is normally diploid?
(a) estrogen and inhibin (a) Primary polar body
(b) progesterone only (b) Spermatid
(c) progesterone and inhibin (c) Spermatogonia
(d) estrogen and progesterone (d) Secondary polar body
28. Ectopic pregnancies are referred to as 33. Capacitation refers to changes in the
(a) pregnancies with genetic abnormality (a) sperm before fertilization
(b) implantation of embryo at site other (b) ovum before fertilization
than uterus (c) ovum after fertilization
(c) implantation of defective embryo in the (d) sperm after fertilization
uterus 34. Which of these is not an important
(d) pregnancies terminated due to the component of initiation of parturition in
hormonal imbalance humans?
29. Which of the following events is not (a) Increase in oestrogen and progesterone
associated with ovulation in human ratio
female? (b) Synthesis of prostaglandins
(a) Decrease in oestradiol (c) Release of oxytocin
(b) Full development of Graafian follicle (d) Release of prolactin
(c) Release of secondary oocyte 35. The shared terminal duct of the
(d) LH surge reproductive and urinary system in the
30. Which of the following layers in an antral human male is
follicle is acellular? (a) Urethra
(a) Granulosa (b) Ureter
(b) Theca interna (c) Vas deferens
(c) Stroma (d) Vasa efferentia
(d) Zona pellucida 36. The main function of mammalian corpus
31. In human females, meiosis-Il is not luteum is to produce
completed until (a) estrogen only
(a) Puberty (b) progesterone
(b) fertilization (c) human chorionic gonadotropin
(c) Uterine implantation (d) relaxin only
46 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

37. Select the correct option describing (a) High level of circulating FSH and LH
gonadotropin activity in a normal pregnant in the uterus to stimulate implantation of
female the embryo
(a) High level of FSH and LH stimulates (b) High level of circulating HCG to
the thickening of endometrium stimulate endometrial thickening
(b) High level of FSH and LH facilitate (c) High levels of FSH and LH in uterus to
implantation of the embryo stimulate endometrial thickening
(c) High level of HCG stimulates the (d) High level of circulating HCG to
synthesis of estrogen and progesterone stimulate oestrogen and progesterone
(d) High level of HCG stimulates the synthesis
thickening of endometrium 41. The Leydig cells as found in the human
38. Which one of the following is not the body are the secretory source of
function of placenta? (a) progesterone
(a) facilitates supply of oxygen and (b) intestinal mucus
nutrients to embryo (c) glucagon
(b) secretes oestrogen (d) androgens
(c) facilitates removal of carbon dioxide 42. If for some reason, the vasa efferentia in
and waste material from embryo the human reproductive system get
(d) secretes oxytocin during parturition blocked, the gametes will not be
39. Which one of the following statements is transported from
false in respect of viability of mammalian (a) epididymis to vas deferens
sperm? (b) ovary to uterus
(a) Sperm is viable for only up to 24 h (c) vagina to uterus
(b) Survival of sperm depends on the pH (d) testes to epididymis
of the medium and is more active in 43. The figure given below depicts a
alkaline medium diagrammatic sectional view of the female
(c) Viability of sperm is determined by its reproductive system of humans. Which
motility one set of three parts out of A-F have been
(d) Sperms must be concentrated in a thick correctly identified?
suspension
40. In a normal pregnant woman, the amount
of total gonadotropin activity was
assessed. The result expected was
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 47

(a) testicular lobules to rete testis

(b) rete testis to vas deferens
(c) vas deferens to epididymis
(d) epididymis to urethra
47. The second maturation division of the
mammalian ovum occurs
(a) shortly after ovulation before the ovum
makes entry into the Fallopian rube
(a) C-Infundibulum, D-Fimbriae, E-Cervix
(b) until after the ovum has been
(b) D-Oviducal funnel, E-Uterus, F-Cervix
penetrated by a sperm
(c) A-Perimetrium, B-Myometrium, C-
(c) until the nucleus of the sperm has fused
Fallopian tube
with that of the ovum
(d) B-Endometrium, C-Infundibulum, D-
(d) in the Graafian follicle following the
Fimbriae
first maturation division
44. The testes in humans are situated outside
48. Which one of the following statements
the abdominal cavity inside a pouch called
about human sperm is correct?
scrotum. The purpose served is for
(a) Acrosome has a conical pointed
(a) escaping any possible compression by
structure used for piercing and penetrating
the visceral organs
the egg, resulting in fertilization
(b) providing more space for the growth of
(b) The sperm lysins in the acrosome
epididymis
dissolve the egg envelope facilitating
(c) providing a secondary sexual feature
fertilization
for exhibiting the male sex
(c) Acrosome serves as a sensory structure
(d) maintaining the scrotal temperature
leading the sperm towards the ovum
lower than the internal body temperature
(d) Acrosome serves no particular function
45. Sertoli cells are found in
49. Which one of the following statements
(a) ovaries and secrete progesterone
about morula in humans is correct?
(b) adrenal cortex and secrete adrenalin
(a) It has almost equal quantity of
(c) seminiferous tubules and provide
cytoplasm as an uncleaved zygote but
nutrition to germ cells
much more DNA
(d) pancreas and secrete cholecystokinin
(b) It has far less cytoplasm as well as less
46. Vasa efferentia are the ductules leading
DNA than in an uncleaved zygote
from
48 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

(c) It has more or less equal quantity of 54. Given below is a diagrammatic sketch of a
cytoplasm and DNA as in uncleaved portion of human male reproductive
zygote system.
(d) It has more cytoplasm and more DNA Select the correct set of the names of the
than an uncleaved zygote parts labelled A, B, C, D.
50. The part of fallopian tube closest to the
ovary is
(a) isthmus
(b) infundibulum
(c) cervix
(d) ampulla
51. A change in the amount of yolk and its (a) A - Ureter; B - Prostate; C - Seminal
distribution in the egg will affect vesicle; D - Bulbourethral gland
(a) formation of zygote (b) A - Vas deferens; B - Seminal vesicle;
(b) pattern of cleavage C - Prostate; D - Bulbourethral gland
(c) number of blastomeres produced (c) A - Vas deferens; B - Seminal vesicle;
(d) fertilization C - Bulbourethral gland; D - Prostate
52. Foetal ejection reflex in human female is (d) A - Ureter; B - Seminal vesicle; C -
induced by Prostate; D - Bulbourethral gland
(a) pressure exerted by amniotic fluid 55. The correct sequence of spermatogenetic
(b) release of oxytocin from pituitary stages leading to the formation of sperms
(c) fully developed foetus and placenta in a mature human testis is
(d) differentiation of mammary glands (a) spermatocyte - spermatogonia -
53. Which one of the following is the most spermatid - sperms
likely reason of not occuring regular (b) spermatogonia - spermatocyte -
menstruation cycle in females ? spermatid - sperms
(a) Fertilisation of the ovum (c) spermatid - spermatocyte -
(b) Maintainance of the hypertrophical spermatogonia - sperms
endometrial lining (d) spermatogonia - spermatid -
(c) Maintainance of high concentration of spermatocyte - sperms
sex-hormones in the blood stream
(d) Retention of well-developed corpus
luteuin
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 49

56. In humans, at the end of the first meiotic (c) At menopause in the female, there is
division, the male germ cells differentiate especially abrupt increase in gonadotropic
into the hormones
(a) primary spermatocytes (d) The beginning of the cycle of
(b) secondary spermatocytes menstruation is called menarche
(c) spermatids 59. Which part of ovary in mammals acts as an
(d) spermatogonia endocrine gland after ovulation?
57. Which extra embryonic membrane in (a) Graafian follicle
humans prevents desiccation of the (b) Stroma
embryo inside the uterus? (c) Germinal epithelium
(a) Chorion (d) Vitelline membrane
(b) Allantois 60. In the human female, menstruation can be
(c) Yolk sac deferred by the administration of:
(d) Amnion (a) LH only
58. Which one of the following statement is (b) Combination of FSH and LH
incorrect about menstruation? (c) Combination of estrogen and
(a) During normal menstruation about 40 progesterone
ml blood is lost (d) FSH only
(b) The menstrual fluid can easily clot
50 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Answers Key
EXERCISE (Basic Exercise)
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b)

6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (b)

11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (d) 15. (c)

16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (a)

21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (a)

26. (b) 27. (d) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (d)

31. (b) 32. (c) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (a)

36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (d) 39. (a) 40. (d)

41. (d) 42. (d) 43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (c)

46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (b) 49. (a) 50. (b)

51. (b) 52. (c) 53. (a) 54. (b) 55. (b)

56. (b) 57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (a) 60. (c)