UNIT-I: NUMBERSYSTEM, INTRODUCTION, FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS

UNIT-I: Number Systems, Introduction, Functional Components

Number Systems: Binary, Decimal, Octal, Hexadecimal; conversions between number
systems (Decimal to Binary, Binary to Decimal)
Introduction to Computers: Characteristics and Limitations of Computer, Types of
computers, Block Diagram of Computer, Computer Generations
Functional Components: Input devices and output devices.

INTRODUCTION:-

Definition:-
A computer is an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and
controlling operations that can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms.

Applications
The applications domain of a computer depends totally on human creativity and
imagination it covers a huge area of applications including education, industries,
government medicine, scientific research, low and even music and arts.
• Millions of complex calculations can be done in a mere fraction of time
• Difficult decisions can be made with unerring accuracy for comparatively little
cost

CHARACTERISTICS AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER:-

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER:-
Speed
Computer process data at an extremely fast rate – millions of instructions per
second in few seconds, a computer can perform a huge task that a normal human being
may take days or even years to complete.

The speed of a computer is calculated in MHZ

Accuracy
Besides efficiency, computer are accurate as well. The level of accuracy depends
on the instructions and the type of machine being used.

Diligence
Computer being a machine does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and
lack of concentration

Reliability
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Reliability is the measurement of performance of a computer, which is measured

against some predetermined standard for operation without any failure.

Storage capability
The main memory of the computer is relatively small and it can hold only a certain
amount of information, therefore, the data is stored on secondary storage devices such as
magnetic tape or disks.

Versatility
It can perform multiple taks simultaneously with great ease. For example, at one
moment it can be used to draft a letter, another moment it can be used to play music an in
between, one can print a document as well.

All this work is possible by changing the program.

Resource sharing
It made the sharing of costly resources like printer possible.

Apart from device sharing data and information can also be shared among group of
computers, thus creating a large information and knowledge base.

LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER:-

Limitation of a computer Computer have the major limitation is that it is not

intelligent enough to take its own decisions and it can be easily crashed which would result
in data or information.
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1. No Feelings:-

 A computer is just a machine made of a combination of hardware components and a

software program. Hence, it does not have any feelings and emotions like humans.

 If humans work tirelessly for long hours, it is obvious to develop the feeling of
tiredness.

2. No Thinking Capability:-

 A computer is a human-made machine.

 It completely relies on the input given by a user and the instructions or programs fed
to it.

 It does not have the ability to think on its own and perform tasks.

3. No Intelligent Quotient (IQ):-

 Intelligent Quotient (IQ) is a standard score that determines an individual’s

intelligence, reasoning ability, or mental ability.

 As computer systems do not have thinking capability, they have no IQ.

 They only respond to situations for which they are instructed or programmed to do.

 Modern computers have become smarter because they are fed with more instructions
or programs to perform diverse and complex tasks.

4. Lack of Common Sense:-

 Common sense is the ability to notice, understand, and make judgments about a
specific situation using intelligence.

 Computers cannot think independently and have no feelings, so they lack common
sense.

5. Lack of Decision-Making Ability:-

 Decision-making is the process of making a firm choice among several alternatives.

 It involves evaluating the pros and cons of alternatives and making the best decision.

6. Dependent on Users:-
 Computers are solely dependent on humans for input and programming.
 Though they automate various routine tasks, they require human instruction in the
form of programs and algorithms to do so.

Hence, computer systems need human intervention or assistance in most situations. They
cannot work on their own.
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7. Cannot Implement:-

 Undoubtedly, computers can store vast amounts of data that a human brain cannot
store or remember.

 However, the vast amounts of storage become useless without the ability to
implement.

8. Cannot Express Thoughts or Ideas:-

 With no feelings and thinking capability, computers have no thoughts and ideas.

 Hence, they are not creative like humans.

 They simply work on the provided instructions and algorithms and have no ideas of
their own.

9. Dependent on Power Supply:-

 To function, computers require a reliable, continuous power supply.
 Without it, computer components, such as the CPU, memory, monitor, and other
peripheral devices, cannot operate.
 Sudden power outages can cause unexpected shutdowns, which may result in data
loss or hardware failure.
However, battery backup systems and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) are in
place to avoid such situations.
10. Cannot Handle Ambiguity:-

 Computer systems require concise and well-defined instructions without any

ambiguity or unclarity.

 If these instructions are not clear or incomplete, computers fail to generate accurate
results.

Conclusion:-

This was all about the limitations of computer systems. Humans outperform computers in
terms of the above limitations. Despite these limitations, the revolution and benefits they
offer to humans are immense.

Types of Computers:-

 Computers are amazing electronic devices that help us learn, play, work, and
connect with the world.

 They store information, process data, and produce results based on our instructions.
With artificial intelligence (AI), some computers can even learn from data!
Computers come in different types based on their size and data-handling
capabilities.
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Types of Computer By Size

Computers vary in size, from huge machines to pocket-sized devices. Here are the main
types:

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTERS:-

Introduction:-

A block diagram of computer system shows you a structural representation of the

computer. This diagram gives you a short review of the working process of a computer, from
inserting data to retrieving results.

 It provides a framework for understanding how different components of a computer

work together to process data and produce results.

 By learning about the block diagram of a computer system, you can gain a better
understanding of how computers work and how to optimize their performance.

The computer’s functional units create the computer’s block diagram. The computer
divides its tasks among the major available units in its block diagram.

The Major Components of the block diagram of computer system are:-

1. Input Unit

2. Output Unit

[Link](CPU)
(1) Control Unit (CU)

(2) Arithmetic And Logic Unit (ALU)

(3) Memory Unit

(i)Primary memory
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(ii)Secondary memory

Input Unit:-

 The computer requires the input unit to receive data and information and then use it to
solve problems.

 The user provides the computer with data and information.

 With the use of input devices, we give data and information input.

 The input unit is made up of a variety of input devices.

 Some input devices are a keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, etc.

The Input Unit’s Primary Functions Are As Follows:

1. With the use of input devices, collect data from the user.
2. Convert the data from electrical signals to computer-readable machine language.
3. Instruct the CPU to receive data from the input devices.
4. Provide the transformed data to the CPU through the memory unit for further
processing.

Output Unit:-

 The computer’s output unit communicates the results of processing and information to
the outside world.

 In general, the output unit reverses the process of the input unit, converting machine
language into electronic signals readable by the output devices.

 The Visual Display Unit (VDU), usually known as the monitor, is the most commonly
utilized output device.
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 Other popular output devices include a projector, headphones, speakers, etc.

Central Processing Unit (CPU):-

Introduction:-

 The CPU is the backbone of the computer system. Without it, a computer is nothing.
All the instructions that the computer receives from the user, or a set of instructions,
are processed by this ‘brain’.

 This brain then prints out the desired result based on the instructions received and the
input that the user made.

Three Major Components Of the CPU Are:-

 Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)

 The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a major part of the computer’s Central
Processing Unit (CPU).

 The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is the portion of the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
that handles all of the Central Processing Unit (CPU’s) calculations.

 The ALUs work for all math and operations that are related to arithmetical and logical
operations.

 Also, they work on the basis of comparisons.

 Mostly, they are responsible for performing the decision-making so that they can do
most of the operations.

 When any calculations must be performed, the Control Unit (CU) passes the data
from the memory unit to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).

 When the computation is completed and the results are created by the ALU, the CU
returns the computation data to the memory unit.
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 The arithmetic unit performs logical, arithmetic, and bit-shifting operations.

 Central Unit (CU)

Another important part of the computer’s central processing unit (CPU) is the control unit
(CU). The control unit, which coordinates and controls other functional units of the computer,
is sometimes known as the “central nervous system” of the machine. All CPU functions,
including ALU operations and data flow inside the CPU, are under the direction of CU.

The CU plays some important functions in the system which are:-

1. When data is received from users via input devices, the control unit informs the input
unit where to keep it.
2. The control unit (CU) gets one instruction at a time from memory and then executes
the instruction at ALU during program execution; thus, the Govern unit also serves to
control the flow of data and instructions from memory to ALU.
3. And the result of the calculation provided by ALU is given over to CU, which directs
it back to memory as well as to the output unit for display on the screen. The Control
Unit (CU) manages the flow of data from the ALU to the memory and output units.

 Memory Unit (MU)

The memory unit is responsible for storing data and information for the computer’s other
functional components. The computer’s memory unit stores the data and information received
from the input unit before it is processed by the central processing unit (CPU). A memory
unit is also known as a memory unit.

The memory unit also plays some major functions in the system, which are:-

1. The data received from the input unit is stored in the memory unit.
2. Data and information are passed to the CPU for further processing.
3. Variable stores any data or instructions created by the CPU during intermediate
processing.
4. After that, the variable stores the final result of data processing in the CPU.
5. Finally, sends the processed data results to the output devices.
6. It also stores data and information for future use.

The Memory Unit is divided into two categories:-

 Primary Memory

 The primary memory is the most quickly accessible memory unit.

 These memories require relatively little time to receive and deliver data for
processing. The Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit are also close to the primary
memory.

 This memory is typically used to store the program that is now running in the CPU,
data received by the input unit, and intermediate and final program results stored and
transmitted from memory to the CPU and back.
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 The primary memory is temporary and volatile. It means that if the computer is turned
off, the data is permanently erased.

Secondary Memory

 Secondary memory capacity ranges from gigabytes to terabytes, and it serves as an

archive for the computer system.

 Secondary memory can be used to store application programs, documents, films,

audio, databases, and so on.

 ata and information transmission and reception are slower than in primary memory.

 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the location where programs are executed.

 Even before the CPU begins program execution, it must request that the secondary
memory load the program’s key instructions and information from the secondary
memory into the primary memory, after which program execution begins.

Block Diagram of Computer Processing Unit (CPU)

 The Central Process unit or CPU is configured with various components, including
the ALU(arithmetic logic unit), control unit, registers, and memory unit.

 The arithmetic logic unit holds out arithmetic and logic operations, and the control
unit interprets and executes instructions.

 Registers are one of the temporary memory locations that store data and instructions
being processed.

 In the last, the CPU is connected to the main memory, which keeps data and
instructions

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS:-
 UNIT-I: NUMBERSYSTEM, INTRODUCTION, FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS

Introduction to Computer

 A computer is an electronic machine that works with data.

 It stores, processes, and shows information.
 It works fast and without mistakes when given correct instructions.
 It helps in schools, offices, banks, hospitals, and homes.
 It can do calculations, store data, and solve problems.
 Computers have become smaller, faster, and smarter over time.

Introduction to Generations of Computers

 “Generations of computers” means the different stages of computer growth.

 Each generation shows new technology and better speed.
 Computers improved in size, storage, speed, and cost.
 From large machines to small laptops, computers changed a lot.
 Every new generation uses new parts and programs.
 There are five main generations of computers.

The Five Generations of Computers:-

First Generation (1940–1956)

 Used vacuum tubes to work.

 Very big in size and took a lot of space.
 Produced too much heat and needed air cooling.
 Slow in speed and often broke down.
 Used machine language (0s and 1s).
 Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC.

Second Generation (1956–1963)

 Used transistors instead of vacuum tubes.

 Smaller and faster than first generation.
 Produced less heat and used less power.
 Stored data in magnetic tapes and disks.
 Used assembly language for writing programs.
 Examples: IBM 1401, IBM 7094.

Third Generation (1964–1971)

 Used integrated circuits (IC chips).

 Became smaller, cheaper, and faster.
 Could do many tasks at one time (multitasking).
 Needed less electricity and produced little heat.
 Used high-level languages like COBOL, FORTRAN.
 Examples: IBM 360 series, Honeywell 6000.

Fourth Generation (1971–1980s)

 Used microprocessors (chip with thousands of circuits).

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 Became very small and very fast.

 Personal computers (PCs) were made.
 Had good storage like hard disks.
 Used computer networks and databases.
 Examples: Apple II, IBM PC.

Fifth Generation (1980s–Present)

 Uses artificial intelligence (AI) and very large scale ICs.

 Computers can learn, think, and make decisions.
 Uses voice, images, and handwriting as input.
 Works very fast and uses less power.
 Includes laptops, smartphones, robots.
 Examples: AI robots, supercomputers, modern PCs.

Input Devices

Introduction:

 Input devices help us give data and commands to the computer.

 They change our words, numbers, or actions into a form the computer can read.
 Without input devices, a computer cannot start its work.
 They are the first step in the working process of a computer.
 They make it easy for people to talk to the computer.
 They are available in many shapes and sizes.

Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Touch Screen, Webcam.

Functions:

 A keyboard lets us type letters, numbers, and symbols.

 A mouse helps us move, click, and choose items on the screen.
 A scanner copies pictures or papers into the computer.
 A microphone records our voice as input.
 A touch screen allows us to tap or swipe directly on the screen.
 A webcam captures live images or videos.

Output Devices

Introduction:

 Output devices show the result of the computer’s work.

 They change computer data into information we can see, hear, or print.
 They help us check and use the answers given by the computer.
 They are the final step after data is processed.
 They make the computer’s work clear to the user.
 They come in many forms for text, images, sound, or video.

Examples: Monitor, Printer, Speaker, Headphones, Projector, Plotter.

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Functions:

 A monitor shows text, pictures, and videos on the screen.

 A printer gives a paper copy of your work.
 Speakers play sounds, music, or voice.
 Headphones let you listen privately.
 A projector shows images on a big screen for many people.
 A plotter draws large and detailed charts or maps.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS: MICRO, MINI, MAINFRAME, AND SUPERCOMPUTERS?

Introduction to Different Types of Computers

 Computers come in many sizes and for many kinds of work.

 They are grouped by size, speed, and the number of users they support.
 The main types are Microcomputers, Minicomputers, Mainframe Computers,
and Supercomputers.
 Each type has its own uses, advantages, and limits.
 Choosing the right type depends on how much work and speed we need.
 From personal use to big research, every task has a suitable computer.

Microcomputers (Personal Computers)

Introduction & Features:

 A microcomputer is a small, low-cost computer for one user.

 It is also called a PC (Personal Computer).
 Used at homes, schools, offices, and shops.
 Easy to carry and install (like laptops).
 Has all parts: input, output, storage, and memory.
 Examples: Desktop PCs, Laptops, Tablets.

Advantages:

 Small in size and light to carry.

 Cheaper than other types of computers.
 Easy to use and learn.
 Good for personal tasks, study, and small office work.
 Needs less power.
 Many models and brands available.

Disadvantages:

 Not good for very big or heavy work.

 Limited storage and speed compared to bigger systems.
 Can work for one person only at a time.
 Hardware can become outdated quickly.
 Not suitable for huge business data.
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 Can get damaged if handled roughly.

Minicomputers

Introduction & Features:

 Minicomputers are medium-sized computers.

 Support many users at the same time (10–100 users).
 Used by small businesses, schools, and factories.
 Faster and stronger than microcomputers.
 Have larger storage and more memory.
 Examples: DEC PDP series, IBM AS/400.

Advantages:

 Support many users together.

 Faster than microcomputers.
 Good for small organizations and departments.
 Store more data than a PC.
 Less costly than mainframes.
 Reliable for day-to-day operations.

Disadvantages:

 Bigger and heavier than a PC.

 Need trained people to set up and manage.
 Not as powerful as mainframes or supercomputers.
 Harder to move from place to place.
 Hardware parts can be expensive.
 Uses more power than microcomputers.

Mainframe Computers

Introduction & Features:

 Large and powerful computers for many users.

 Used by banks, railways, airlines, and big companies.
 Handle very large data and transactions quickly.
 Work without stopping for long hours.
 Can connect hundreds of terminals (screens).
 Examples: IBM zSeries, UNIVAC.

Advantages:

 Process very large amounts of data fast.

 Support hundreds or thousands of users.
 Very reliable and strong.
 Can run many programs at the same time.
 Best for big businesses and government offices.
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 Long life and high security.

Disadvantages:

 Very costly to buy and maintain.

 Big in size, need special rooms and cooling.
 Need expert staff to manage.
 Not portable at all.
 Power use is very high.
 Repair and upgrade cost is high.

Supercomputers

Introduction & Features:

 Supercomputers are the fastest and most powerful computers.

 Used for research, weather forecasts, space studies, and AI.
 Can do millions of calculations per second.
 Handle complex problems scientists and engineers face.
 Have huge memory and storage.
 Examples: PARAM (India), Cray, Fugaku.

Advantages:

 Solve very hard problems quickly.

 Help in science, defense, space, and medical research.
 Can model weather, climate, and earthquakes.
 Support advanced artificial intelligence and robotics.
 Speed saves time for big projects.
 Work with very big data (Big Data).

Disadvantages:

 Extremely costly to buy and maintain.

 Very large; need special buildings.
 Use a lot of electricity.
 Only for special research and not for normal users.
 Need expert staff to work on them.
 Building or repairing takes a long time.

Summary Table

Type Users Size Speed Cost Best Use

Microcompute Low–
1 Small Low Home, office
r Medium
10– Mediu Medium–
Minicomputer Medium Small businesses
100 m High
Very Very
Mainframe 100+ High Banks, airlines
big High
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Supercompute Very Research,

Many Huge Very High
r High weather