UNIT-II: MEMORY, SOFTWARE, N/W FUNDAMENTALS, OPERATING SYSTEMS

UNIT –II: Memory, Software, N/w fundamentals, Operating Systems

Memories: Primary memory, Secondary Memory, and cache memory.
Software : Types of Software, Application Software, System Software.
Networking Fundamentals: Definition, need for networks, types (LAN, WAN, MAN),
topology (Star, Ring, Bus).

Operating Systems: Functions of Operating Systems and Types of Operating System.

Memories: Primary memory, Secondary Memory, and cache memory.

MEMORY:
INTRODUCTION:-
 Memory is the electronic storage space where a computer keeps the instructions and data it
needs to access quickly.
 It's the place where information is stored for immediate use.
 Memory is an important component of a computer, as without it, the system wouldn’t
operate correctly.
 The computer’s operating system (OS), hardware, and software all rely on memory to
function properly.

Types of Computer Memory

In general, computer memory is divided into three types:
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory
 Cache memory
Now we discuss each type of memory one by one in detail:
1. Primary Memory
It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store
data and programs, or instructions during computer operations. It uses
semiconductor technology and hence is commonly called semiconductor
memory. Primary memory is of two types:
RAM (Random Access Memory):
It is a volatile memory. Volatile memory stores information based on the power
supply. If the power supply fails/ interrupted/stopped, all the data and
information on this memory will be lost. RAM is used for booting up or starting
the computer. It temporarily stores programs/data which has to be executed by
the processor. RAM is of two types:
 S RAM (Static RAM):S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of this memory
are capable of retaining their state as long as the power is applied. This
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memory consists of the number of flip flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It
has less access time and hence, it is faster.
 D RAM (Dynamic RAM):D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and stores
the data as a charge on the capacitors. They contain thousands of memory
cells. It needs refreshing of charge on capacitor after a few milliseconds. This
memory is slower than S RAM.
ROM (Read Only Memory):
It is a non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory stores information even when
there is a power supply failed/ interrupted/stopped. ROM is used to store
information that is used to operate the system. As its name refers to read-only
memory, we can only read the programs and data that are stored on it. It
contains some electronic fuses that can be programmed for a piece of specific
information. The information is stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also
known as permanent memory. ROM is of four types:
 MROM(Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed
collection of data or instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a
type of low-cost ROM that works in this way.
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is
modifiable once by the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses
a PROM program to put the required contents into the PROM. Its content
can't be erased once written.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):EPROM is an
extension to PROM where you can erase the content of ROM by exposing it
to Ultraviolet rays for nearly 40 minutes.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory): Here the written contents can be erased electrically. You can
delete and reprogram EEPROM up to 10,000 times. Erasing and
programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds). Any
area in an EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.
2. Secondary Memory
It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile
memory and used to store a large amount of data or information. The data or
information stored in secondary memory is permanent, and it is slower than
primary memory. A CPU cannot access secondary memory directly. The
data/information from the auxiliary memory is first transferred to the main
memory, and then the CPU can access it.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 It is a slow memory but reusable.
 It is a reliable and non-volatile memory.
 It is cheaper than primary memory.
 The storage capacity of secondary memory is large.
 A computer system can run without secondary memory.
 In secondary memory, data is stored permanently even when the power is
off.
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Types of Secondary Memory

1. Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tape is a long, narrow strip of plastic film with a
thin, magnetic coating on it that is used for magnetic recording. Bits are
recorded on tape as magnetic patches called RECORDS that run along many
tracks. Typically, 7 or 9 bits are recorded concurrently. Each track has one
read/write head, which allows data to be recorded and read as a sequence of
characters. It can be stopped, started moving forward or backwards or rewound.
2. Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disk is a circular metal or a plastic plate and
these plates are coated with magnetic material. The disc is used on both sides.
Bits are stored in magnetized surfaces in locations called tracks that run in
concentric rings. Sectors are typically used to break tracks into pieces.

Hard discs are discs that are permanently attached and cannot be removed by a
single user.
3. Optical Disks: It's a laser-based storage medium that can be written to and
read. It is reasonably priced and has a long lifespan. The optical disc can be
taken out of the computer by occasional users.
Types of Optical Disks
CD - ROM
 It's called a compact disk. Only read from memory.
 Information is written to the disc by using a controlled laser beam to burn pits
on the disc surface.
 It has a highly reflecting surface, which is usually aluminium.
 The diameter of the disc is 5.25 inches.
 16000 tracks per inch is the track density.
 The capacity of a CD-ROM is 600 MB, with each sector storing 2048 bytes of
data.
 The data transfer rate is about 4800KB/sec. & the new access time is around
80 milliseconds.
WORM-(WRITE ONCE READ MANY)
 A user can only write data once.
 The information is written on the disc using a laser beam.
 It is possible to read the written data as many times as desired.
 They keep lasting records of information but access time is high.
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 It is possible to rewrite updated or new data to another part of the disc.

 Data that has already been written cannot be changed.
 Usual size - 5.25 inch or 3.5 inch diameter.
 The usual capacity of a 5.25-inch disk is 650 MB,5.2GB etc.
DVDs
The term "DVD" stands for "Digital Versatile/Video Disc," and there are two sorts
of DVDs:
 DVDR (writable)
 DVDRW (Re-Writable)
 DVD-ROMS (Digital Versatile Discs): These are read-only memory (ROM)
discs that can be used in a variety of ways. When compared to CD-ROMs,
they can store a lot more data. It has a thick polycarbonate plastic layer that
serves as a foundation for the other layers. It's an optical memory that can
read and write data.
 DVD-R: DVD-R is a writable optical disc that can be used just once. It's a
DVD that can be recorded. It's a lot like WORM. DVD-ROMs have capacities
ranging from 4.7 to 17 GB. The capacity of 3.5 inch disk is 1.3 GB.
3. Cache Memory
Cache Memory is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the
CPU run faster. Between the CPU and the main memory, it serves as a buffer. It
is used to store the data and programs that the CPU uses the most frequently.

Advantages of Cache Memory

 It is faster than the main memory.
 When compared to the main memory, it takes less time to access it.
 It keeps the programs that can be run in a short amount of time.
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 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages of Cache Memory
 Because of the semiconductors used, it is very expensive.
 The size of the cache (amount of data it can store) is usually small.
Computer memory is important for storing and processing data in a computer.
Data is stored in the form of bits and bytes. As the amount of data grows, it's
important to understand how larger units like kilobytes, megabytes, and
gigabytes are used to store and manage bigger files. Understanding file
sizes makes it easier to organize and manage data.
Software:-
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or
commands that tell a computer to do a specific task that serves its users.
 A software is not a physical thing like hardware, it rather makes the hardware
work as per user requirements by giving instructions.
 Examples of software are MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint and Web
Browser
Types of Software
The chart below describes the types of software:

Above is the diagram of types of software. Now we will briefly describe each
type and its subtypes:
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1. System Software
 Operating System (like Windows and Linux)
 Language Processor
 Device Driver
2. Application Software
 General Purpose Software
 Customize Software
 Utility Software
System Software
System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and
provides the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to
operate smoothly.
 System software basically controls a computer’s internal functioning and also
controls hardware devices such as monitors, printers, and storage devices,
etc.
 It is like an interface between hardware and user applications, it helps them
to communicate with each other because hardware understands machine
language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are work in human-readable
languages like English, Hindi, German, etc.
Types of System Software
It has two subtypes which are:
1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the
computer system ON it is the first software that loads into the computer's
memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such as computer
memory, CPU, printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user,
which helps the user to interact with the computer system.
2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the
human-readable language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the
conversion is done by the language processor. It converts programs written
in high-level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known
as source code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by
machines(known as object code or machine code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a
device and helps that device to perform its functions. Every device like a
printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer
system eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer
system, first you need to install the driver of that device so that your
operating system knows how to control or manage that device.
Features of System Software
Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:
 Closer to the computer system.
 Written in a low-level language in general.
 Difficult to design and understand.
 Fast in speed(working speed).
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 Less interactive for the users in comparison to application software.

Application Software
Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much
more than the basic operation of the computer is known as application software.
 Application software is designed to perform a specific task for end-users. It is
a product or a program that is designed only to fulfill end-users'
requirements.
 Examples include word processors, spreadsheets, database management,
inventory, payroll programs, etc.
Types of Application Software
There are different types of application software and those are:
1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a
variety of tasks and it is not limited to performing a specific task only. For
example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed
to perform specific tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations.
For example, railway reservation system , airline reservation system, invoice
management system, etc.
3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the
computer infrastructure. It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and
maintains the system, and take care of its requirements as well. For
example, antivirus, disk fragmenter, memory tester, disk repair, disk
cleaners, registry cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.
Features of Application Software
Let us discuss some of the features of Application Software:
 Perform more specialized tasks like word processing, spreadsheets, email,
etc.
 Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
 More interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.
 Easy to design and understand.
 Written in a high-level language in general.
Difference Between System Software and Application Software
Now, let us discuss some difference between system software and application
software:
System Software Application Software

It is designed to manage the resources of It is designed to fulfill the

the computer system, like memory and requirements of the user for
process management, etc. performing specific tasks.

Written in a low-level language. Written in a high-level language.

Less interactive for the users. More interactive for the users.
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System Software Application Software

Application software is not so

System software plays vital role for the
important for the functioning of the
effective functioning of a system.
system, as it is task specific.

It is independent of the application

It needs system software to run.
software to run.

NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS:-
DEFINITION:-
Networking fundamentals are the basic concepts and components of building and maintaining
computer networks, which enable devices to communicate and share resources. These
fundamentals include understanding different network types (like LANs and WANs), essential
devices (such as routers and switches), communication rules (protocols), and security measures
(like firewalls).
Core components
 Nodes:

Any device connected to a network, such as computers, printers, or servers, that can send, receive,
or forward data.

 Media:

The physical or wireless path that data travels on. Examples include Ethernet cables (wired) or Wi-
Fi signals (wireless).

 Networking devices:

Hardware that manages and directs network traffic. Examples include:

 Routers: Connect different networks together.

 Switches: Connect devices within the same network.

 Protocols:
A set of rules that govern how devices communicate, like standardized methods for addressing,
encrypting, and error correction.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central
node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an
active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.
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Star Topology
Note: Here, Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers
& many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection),
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number
of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
Note: A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an
office where all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also
used in wireless networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access
point.
Bus Topology
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Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and
a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In
Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by
LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number
of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N
drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to
build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid
this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha,
Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
Note: A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all
devices are connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This
topology is also used in cable television networks.
Ring Topology
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In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two

neighboring devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a
large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last
node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations
to transmit the data where, Token passing is a network access method in which
a token is passed from one node to another node & Token is a frame that
circulates around the network.

Ring Topology
Note: Here, data flows in one direction, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring
Topology.
Operations of Ring Topology
 One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility
for performing the operations.
 To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission
is done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
 When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the
ring.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
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Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to
fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 Less secure.
Need of Computer Network
Computer networks have become vital in the modern age because they allow
interaction as well as sharing of resources among various devices and individuals.
The following is a list of things that we do via computer networks, matters that we
benefit from using computer networks, or items that have become achievable or in
effect as a result of computer networks. Let us know all the details so that we can
understand the significance of computer networking.
 Easy resource sharing ? Computer networks allow users and devices to
share resources like printers, documents, and apps easily. This increases
efficiency while decreasing the expense of offering resources.
 Good communication facility ? Computer networks help individuals to
communicate with one another regardless of where they are. Individuals can
communicate in real-time using networking tools such as instant messaging,
email, and video conferencing.
 Access information ? Networks enable access to a diverse set of services
and information, such as the internet, database servers, and cloud-based
services for computing. Individuals can now obtain and share data all over
the globe.
 High security ? Networks enable the deployment of security precautions like
encrypted connections, firewalls, and access control that help protect
sensitive information and data from illicit access and other safety hazards.
 Collaboration ? Networks enable collaboration among people and groups
engaged in the same task, regardless of their geographical location. This
encourages collaboration, improves productivity, and fosters creativity.
 Centralized management ? Networks enable centralized handling of
resources, apps, and information.
Types of Network - LAN, WAN and MAN
The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different
computers via any medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three major types of
networks designed to operate over the area they cover.

Types of Networks
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The different types of networks can be categorised based on the area they cover
(ranging from personal connections to global networks), the type of
communication they use, and their architectural design.
Local Area Network (LAN)
A LAN connects computers and devices within a small area like a home, office,
school, or hospital. It usually uses switches, routers, and private IP addresses.
LANs are high-speed, inexpensive to set up, and easy to maintain.
 Coverage: Up to 2 km (limited area).
 Speed: Earlier 4–16 Mbps; now 100–1000 Mbps.
 Medium: Mostly wired (Ethernet cables, twisted-pair, coaxial), though
wireless can also be used.
 Example: Students playing a multiplayer game in the same room without
internet.

Advantages:
 Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
 Easy to set up and manage.
 Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
Disadvantages:
 Limited geographical coverage.
 Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades to
accommodate growth.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased
usage.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN spans 5–50 km, covering more area than a LAN but less than a WAN. It
connects computers across a city or between nearby cities. MANs provide high-
speed connectivity (in Mbps), can act as ISPs, and are useful for organizations
needing fast communication. However, they are costly, complex to design, and
harder to maintain.

Advantages:
 Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than LAN.
 Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
 Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.
Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with increased
usage.
 May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A WAN covers large geographical areas (above 50 km), often connecting
multiple LANs through telephone lines, radio waves, or satellites. It can be
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private (for organizations) or public (like the internet). WANs offer high-speed
communication but are costly to set up and maintain.

Covers large geographical areas, connecting networks across countries or continents.

Advantages:
 Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
 Provides connectivity to the internet.
 Offers remote access to resources and applications.
Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
 May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.