Self-test exercises semigroups & groups – sample solutions Fall 2025

1. (a) Yes, Z is closed under ⋆: if x, y ∈ Z, also |x − y| is an integer.

(b) Yes, ⋆ is commutative. Because x − y = −(y − x) we have x ⋆ y = |x − y| = |y − x| =
y ⋆ x.
(c) No, ⋆ is not associative. For example, consider two ways of grouping 3 ⋆ 0 ⋆ −2:

(3 ⋆ 0) ⋆ −2 = 3 ⋆ −2 = |3 − (−2)| = 5 but 3 ⋆ (0 ⋆ −2) = 3 ⋆ 2 = 1.

(d) No, ⋆ does not have an identity element. Proof by contradiction. Suppose e is an
identity element. Then e ⋆ −2 = −2 but this is impossible because |e − (−2)| cannot
be negative.
(e) No, (Z, ⋆) is not a semigroup because its operation is not associative.

2. We have b ∗ (a ∗ b′ ) = b ∗ e = b and (b ∗ a) ∗ b′ = e ∗ b′ = b′ . Since ∗ is associative

b ∗ (a ∗ b′ ) = (b ∗ a) ∗ b′ and hence b = b′ .

3. (a) The element a is an inverse of b because a ∗ b = b ∗ a = e. The element a is also an

inverse of c because a ∗ c = c ∗ a = e.
(b) Using the table we have

(a ∗ b) ∗ c = e ∗ c = c, and,

a ∗ (b ∗ c) = a ∗ e = a.
This means that (a ∗ b) ∗ c ̸= a ∗ (b ∗ c) and the operation is not associative.

4. (Q− , ·) is not a group. For example, −1, −2 ∈ Q− but (−1) · (−2) = 2 ̸∈ Q− , so Q− is

not closed under multiplication.

5. ˆ Operation ∧: The operation is closed, commutative and associative and TRUE is

an identity element. However, FALSE does not have an inverse. Therefore, (B, ∧)
is not a group.
ˆ Operation ∨: The operation is closed, commutative and associative and FALSE is
an identity element. However, TRUE does not have an inverse. Therefore, (B, ∨) is
not a group.
ˆ Operation ∨: The operation ∨ is closed, commutative and associative and FALSE is
an identity element. Furthermore, TRUE∨TRUE = FALSE and FALSE∨FALSE =
FALSE so each element is its own inverse. Therefore, (B, ∨) is a group.
Self-test exercises semigroups & groups – sample solutions Fall 2025

6. Two reasons: (i) (Zn , ⊖) does not have identity element. Possible identity element e
would need to satisty e ⊖ x = x for all x ∈ Z which is not possible.
(ii) ⊖ is not associative: (1 ⊖ 1) ⊖ 1 = 0 ⊖ 1 = n − 1, but 1 − (1 − 1) = 1 − 0 = 1. Since
n ≥ 3, 1 ̸= n − 1.

7. First prove that f is one-to-one. Suppose f (x) = f (y) for some x, y ∈ G. This means
that a ∗ x = a ∗ y. Since a−1 ∗ a = e (the identity element) we get using associativity of ∗

x = (a−1 ∗ a) ∗ x = a−1 ∗ (a ∗ x) = a−1 ∗ (a ∗ y) = (a−1 ∗ a) ∗ y = y,

and we have shown that f is one-to-one.

Second we prove that f is onto. Consider an arbitrary element z ∈ G. Now

f (a−1 ∗ z) = a ∗ (a−1 ∗ z) = (a ∗ a−1 ) ∗ z = e ∗ z = z

and f maps a−1 ∗ z to z.

8. We denote by e the identity of the group. To show that g ∗ h and h−1 ∗ g −1 are inverses of
each other we ∗-multiple these elements together (in either direction) and show that the
result is e. The below equations use repeatedly associativity of ∗.

(g ∗ h) ∗ (h−1 ∗ g −1 ) = g ∗ (h ∗ h−1 ) ∗ g −1 = g ∗ e ∗ g −1 = g ∗ g −1 = e,

(h−1 ∗ g −1 ) ∗ (g ∗ h) = h−1 ∗ (g −1 ∗ g) ∗ h) = h−1 ∗ e ∗ h = h−1 ∗ h = e.

9. (a) The multiplication table is given in Figure 1.

· 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5

3 3 6 2 5 1 4
1 5 2 6 3
4 4
3 1 6 4 2
5 5
6 5 4 3 2 1
6

Figure 1: Multiplication table of G.

(b) Note that 1 is the identity element of G. Recall that a−1 is the element of G such
that a · a−1 = 1. Hence 2−1 = 4, 3−1 = 5 and 6−1 = 6.
Self-test exercises semigroups & groups – sample solutions Fall 2025

· 1 2 4 7 8 11 13 14

1 1 2 4 7 8 11 13 14

2 2 4 8 14 1 7 11 13

4 4 8 1 13 2 14 7 11

7 7 14 13 4 11 2 1 8

8 8 1 2 11 4 13 14 7

11 11 7 14 2 13 1 8 4

13 13 11 7 1 14 8 4 2

14 14 13 11 8 7 4 2 1

Figure 2: Multiplication table of Z∗15 .

10. The elements of Z15 that are relatively prime with 15 are {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14}. The
Cayley table of the group (Z∗15 , ·) is given in Figure 2.
Elements a, b ∈ Z∗15 are inverses if a · b = 1. From the Cayley table we see that 2−1 = 8,
7−1 = 13, and 11−1 = 11.

11. (a) If eH is the identity element of H and eK is the identify element of K, then (eH , eK )
is the identity element of G. The order of G is |G| = |H| · |K|.
(b) Since Z2 has two elements, G has four elements. Denote
e = (0, 0), a = (1, 0), b = (0, 1), c = (1, 1)
The multiplication table of G appears in Figure 3. Note that a2 = b2 = c2 = e.
After noticing this, and recalling that each row and each column must contain every
element of G exactly once, it is easy to fill out the remaining entries. The group G
is Abelian since the table is symmetric.

12. We need to prove the implication in both directions.

(⇒) Suppose G is Abelian and consider g, h ∈ G. We have
(g ∗ h)−1 = h−1 ∗ g −1 = g −1 ∗ h−1 .
Above the first equality uses Exercise 8 and the 2nd equality uses the fact the G is Abelian.
(⇐) Suppose (g ∗ h)−1 = g −1 ∗ h−1 for all g, h ∈ G. Let a, b ∈ G be arbitrary. Let g = a−1
and h = b−1 Substituting these into
(g ∗ h)−1 = g −1 ∗ h−1
Self-test exercises semigroups & groups – sample solutions Fall 2025

* e a b c

e e a b c

a a e c b

b b c e a

c c b a e

Figure 3: Multiplication table of G = Z2 × Z2 .

gives
(a−1 ∗ b−1 )−1 = (a−1 )−1 ∗ (b−1 )−1 .
On the other hand, using Exercise 8 we have

(a−1 ∗ b−1 )−1 = (b−1 )−1 ∗ (a−1 )−1 ,

and therefore
(a−1 )−1 ∗ (b−1 )−1 = (b−1 )−1 ∗ (a−1 )−1 .
Since (a−1 )−1 = a and (b−1 )−1 = b we have a ∗ b = b ∗ a. Since a and b were arbitrary, we
conclude that G is Abelian.