KISII UNIVERSITY
UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMME IN BACHELOR OF ARTS
(General) & BED (Arts)–GEOGRAPHY (Subject Option)
GEOG 402: APPLIED HYDROGY
WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
Water quality describes the characteristics of water which determine its
ability to be used for human consumption and use, industrial use and
agricultural use.
It also describes quantitative analytical measurements of pollutants
needed before water pollution can be controlled. The pollutants in water
are usually expressed in mg/l or ppm (parts per million).
To determine water quality sampling is required at the site because the
process of obtaining a sample may change the measurement e.g. sampling
for determination of dissolved oxygen must be done on the site to ensure
no loss or addition of oxygen due to exposure to air. Sampling for pH
determination is done on the site if water is poorly buffered from pH
changes.
Types of sampling
1. Grab sampling; measure water quality at one point. The sampling
does not say anything about water quality before or after sampling.
It accurately represents water quality at the time of sampling.
2. Composite sampling; take a series of grab samples and mix them.
3. Flow-weighted composite sampling; take each sample so that the
volume of the sample is proportional to the flow at that time.
The characteristics are regarded as water quality parameters and
are broadly divided into three categories:
1. Physical water quality parameters: color; suspended matter
turbidity; taste and odour; temperature
2. Chemical water quality parameters: pH; hardness and
softness; dissolved oxygen; oxygen demand; nutrients;
chlorides
3. Biological water quality parameters; microorganisms and pathogens;
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PHYSICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
1. Suspended matter
Consist mainly inorganic and/or organic particles, fine dispersions of
immiscible liquids (oils) and waves. Inorganic soils include fie silica, clay,
silt and other soil components. Organic matters are from sources like
plants, animals and organic synthetic materials. Groundwater (GW) is not
contaminated with suspended matter due to the filtering ability of soil.
Effects of suspended matter on water quality
Spoils the appearance of water and make it aesthetically
unpleasant
Suspended matter undergo biological degradation resulting
in objectionable by-products
Cannot be used for industrial purposes due to chemical interference
and clogging of machine parts, choking of pipes and sludge deposition
Measurement of suspended matter
Experimentally measured by filtering a known quantity of water sample
through a filter paper. Suspended matter is reported in mg/L or ppm.
2. Turbidity
It is the associated matter content in water. Usually observed by observing
the depth which light penetrates in water. Suspended matter usually
scatters light and prevents passage of light through water, hence giving it
its turbidity. It results from a wide variety of suspended materials that
range in size from colloidal to course dispersions.
It can be caused by both natural (silica, clay, silt) and man-made causes
(anthropogenic activities; domestic and industrial).
Measurement
Measured using turbid meter that measures the intensity of scattered light.
It can also measure by a Nephlometer that expresses turbidity in
Nephlometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
3. Colour
Water colour is impaired by dissolved and suspended matter. The presence
of colour is objectionable from the aesthetic and hygiene point of view in
drinking water.
Measurement of colour
Measured visually by comparison with potassium chloroplalinate or by
scanning at different spectrophotometric wavelengths. Samples are first
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filtered or centrifuged to remove suspended matter
4. Taste and odour
Substances that produce odour in water invariably impart a taste as well.
On the converse, mineral substances can produce taste, but not odor.
Substance that change taste and odour are: minerals; metals; salts from
soils; end products of biological reactions; and constituents of waste water.
Odor inducing components are: Amines (fishy smell); hydrogen sulphide
(rotten egg smell); mercaptans (skunk); organic sulphides (rotten cabbage
smell); Caused by algae and humic compounds and dissolved compounds
such as iron.
Measurement of odor
Measured through successive dilutions of a sample of water with odor free
water until the odor is no longer detectable. It is expressed in terms of TON
(Threshold Odor Number); N0 of time the dilution should be carried out with
odor free water to get water of acceptable quality.
Measurement of taste
Three methods:
1. Flavor threshold taste (FTT): water samples are diluted with
increasing amounts of a reference water sample until a panel of taste
testers conclude there is no perceptible flavor
2. Flavor rating assessment (FRA): water tasters are asked to rate
the flavor from very favorable to very unfavorable
3. Flavor profile analysis (FPA): taste measure in comparison to taste
and odor reference standards. Oldest method!!!!!!!
Exercise question
Describe the various simple experiments you can carry out in a
classroom setting to teach high school students the above physical
water quality parameters.
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CHEMICAL WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
1. Dissolved Oxygen (DO): quantity of oxygen dissolved in a sample
of water.
Measured by two methods:
Iodometric titration (Winkler Test): chemical test procedure that
involve use of magnesium sulphate, potassium hydroxide and
potassium iodide (to indicate color change, and end of reaction) to
form a white precipitate of magnesium hydroxide. The quantity of the
white precipitate is take is the approximate quantity of dissolved
oxygen present in the water.
Use of Oxygen probe: involve use of lead and silver electrodes in an
electrolyte solution with a micrometer between to measure the current
passed. In the presence of Oxygen, a current will be registered and the
electricity recorded is proportional to the concentration of dissolved
oxygen.
2. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): rate of Oxygen use by water
organism engaged in stabilizing decomposable organic matter over a
specified time. High demand indicates a dissolved oxygen sag while
low demand indicates clean water or presence of a toxic or non-
biodegradable pollutant
Measurement:
5- Day BOD Test method
Place water or effluent into two standard 60-300 ml BOD bottles
Analyze water in one bottle immediately to measure initial dissolved
oxygen concentration
Seal and store the 2 nd bottle in the dark at 20 oC – to avoid
photosynthetic generation of oxygen
After 5 days, amount of dissolved oxygen remaining is measured and
the difference between the 1st bottle and 2nd bottle is the measured
BOD in five days (BOD5)
3. Chemical oxygen demand (COD): use of potassium dichromate and
sulfuric acid to oxidize the organic matter with silver added as a
catalyst. Usually shorter time than BOD.
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4. pH: a measure of H ions in water. When H+ is higher, water is
described as acidic, if H+ is lower or OH- is in excess, water is
described as basic. Measured using electronic pH meters.
pH is important in drinking water, wastewater treatment, water
treatment, and disinfection and corrosion control.
5. Hardness: caused by the dissolution of multivalent metallic cations
such as calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous iron and manganese
ions. The ions react with soap to form precipitates hence water does
not produce a stable lather. It varies from place to place. Surface
waters are softer than groundwater. It results from the geological
formation water has been contact with.
Classification
Carbonate hardness: due to presence of calcium or/and magnesium
bicarbonates. Are usually sensitive to heat. They precipitate easily on
application of heat. Also called temporary hardness.
Non-carbonate hardness (permanent hardness): due to the
presence of anions like sulphates and chlorides.
Effects
- Makes cleaning unsatisfactory
- Unsuitable for use in boilers and demineralization is essential
Measurement: use of spectrophotometric techniques or chemical
titration to determine the quantity of calcium or magnesium
6. Surfactants: mainly alkyl benzene sulphate used as a detergent
and organic pesticides (chlorinated hydrocarbons)
Measurement:
Are non-biodegradable and can be tested by chemical oxygen test
(COD) and total organic carbon (TOC) method.
Exercise question
Describe a specific practical example/experiments use can use to
teach/demonstrate hardness in water
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