Definition Questions
Topic 1 (Nature & Variety) – Paper 1
• Cell: “The basic building block of all living organisms” 1 .
• Eukaryotic cell: A cell with a membrane-bound nucleus (found in plants, animals) 2 . By contrast,
prokaryotes (bacteria) have no nucleus and have circular DNA 3 .
• Plant cells: Multicellular; have chloroplasts and cellulose walls; capable of photosynthesis; store
carbohydrate as starch or sucrose 4 .
• Animal cells: Multicellular; no chloroplasts or cellulose walls; cannot photosynthesise; usually have
nervous coordination and can move; often store carbohydrate as glycogen 5 .
• Fungi: Organisms without chloroplasts (no photosynthesis); body often a mycelium of hyphae
(thread-like tubes with many nuclei) 6 ; cell walls made of chitin; feed saprotrophically (secreting
enzymes externally and absorbing organic products) 7 .
• Protoctists: Mainly microscopic single-celled eukaryotes. Some (like Amoeba) resemble animal cells
(no chloroplasts), others (like Chlorella) have chloroplasts and behave like plants 8 . Pathogenic
protoctists (e.g. Plasmodium) cause diseases.
• Bacteria (prokaryotes): Microscopic unicellular organisms; have cell wall, membrane, cytoplasm
and plasmids; no nucleus (circular DNA chromosome instead) 3 ; some photosynthesise, most are
heterotrophic (feed on living or dead matter) 3 . Example: Lactobacillus in yoghurt.
• Virus: Non-living particles (not cells); only reproduce inside living cells; have a protein coat and either
DNA or RNA 9 . Viruses (e.g. influenza, HIV) infect hosts and use host metabolism to multiply.
• Pathogen: A disease-causing organism or particle; can be a fungus, bacterium, protoctist or virus
10 .
• Photosynthesis: An endothermic reaction in chloroplasts where light energy is used to convert
carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen 11 . (Word equation: carbon dioxide + water →
glucose + oxygen.)
• Respiration: The metabolic process of releasing energy from food (glucose) in cells. Aerobic
respiration (with O₂) yields CO₂ and water. (Not in cited text, but fundamental definition.)
• Diffusion: Passive movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration, down a concentration gradient, without energy input 12 .
• Osmosis: A special case of diffusion: net movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane from high water concentration (low solute) to low water concentration (high solute) 13 .
This is how water enters root hair cells and leaves guard cells.
• Active transport: Energy‑requiring movement of molecules or ions against a concentration
gradient (from low to high concentration) via protein pumps 14 . (Example: uptake of mineral ions by
root cells.)
Topic 1 – Paper 2
(Much of Topic 1 carries over to Paper 2.) Key definitions repeat as above. In addition:
- Saprotrophic nutrition: Feeding by secreting digestive enzymes onto dead/decaying matter and
absorbing soluble products 7 . Fungi (e.g. Mucor) use saprotrophy.
1
- Heterotroph vs Autotroph: Heterotrophs obtain organic nutrients from other organisms (animals, most
bacteria, fungi); autotrophs make food by photosynthesis (plants, some protists) 15 7 .
Topic 2 (Structure & Function) – Paper 1
• Organelle: A subcellular structure with a specific function (e.g. nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplast).
(Basic concept, not directly cited.)
• Cell wall (plant): Rigid outer layer of cellulose (plants) or chitin (fungi) 6 ; provides support and
protection. Animals have no cell wall.
• Chloroplast: Organelle in plant cells where photosynthesis occurs 16 . (Contains internal thylakoid
membranes, but core fact is site of photosynthesis 16 .)
• Mitochondrion: Organelle for aerobic respiration, releasing energy; found in most eukaryotic cells.
(Common knowledge, not directly cited.)
• Nucleus: Organelle containing DNA (controls cell activities). (General knowledge.)
• Diffusion: [As above] passive movement down gradient 12 .
• Osmosis: [As above] net movement of water down gradient 13 .
• Enzyme: A biological catalyst (protein) that speeds up metabolic reactions. (Spec says “biological
catalysts” 17 .)
• Homeostasis: Regulation of internal conditions (e.g. temperature, pH, water, glucose) to maintain a
stable state. (Basic concept, outside citations.)
Topic 2 – Paper 2
(Definitions here echo Paper 1.) Additional ones:
- Organism level: Organ = group of tissues with a common function; Organ system = group of organs
working together. (Typical definitions, e.g. “levels of organisation” 18 .)
- Anaerobic respiration: Breakdown of glucose without oxygen, yielding less energy (e.g. glucose → lactic
acid in humans, ethanol + CO₂ in yeast). (Exam staple, but no direct citation.)
Diagram Questions
(Embed relevant labeled diagrams below.)
Figure: Typical plant cell with key parts. A complete plant cell diagram should label the cell wall (cellulose),
cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, large central vacuole, chloroplasts, mitochondria and ribosomes
4 . Plant cells are characterised by a cellulose cell wall and chloroplasts (for photosynthesis) 4 , unlike
animal cells.
Figure: Typical animal cell with key parts. An animal (eukaryotic) cell diagram should label the cell membrane,
nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, etc. Animal cells have no cell wall
or chloroplasts 5 , which distinguishes them from plant cells.
Figure: Basic prokaryotic (bacterial) cell structure. Label the cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, plasmids,
and circular DNA (nucleoid region). Bacteria have a cell wall and no nucleus 3 . Plasmids (small DNA rings)
may also be shown.
2
Figure: Cross-section of a chloroplast. Key features to label are the double membrane, thylakoid
membranes (grana stacks), and stroma. Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis 16 . (Inner thylakoid
membranes increase surface area for light absorption.)
Figure: A single alveolus (lung air sac) at gas exchange. Alveoli are adapted for diffusion: walls are only one cell
thick (minimizing diffusion distance) 19 , and each is surrounded by capillaries. There are ~480 million
alveoli providing ~50–75 m² surface area 20 . Essential labels include the alveolar wall, capillary network,
and air space (lumen). These features (huge surface area, thin barrier, rich blood supply) maximize oxygen/
CO₂ diffusion 19 .
Figure: Guard cells and stomatal opening. Label the pair of kidney-shaped guard cells surrounding the
stoma** (pore) in a leaf surface. When guard cells take up K⁺ ions, water enters by osmosis, increasing their
turgor (they swell) and opening the stoma 21 . When K⁺ is lost, cells shrink and the stoma closes. (Open
stomata allow CO₂ to enter for photosynthesis and O₂/water vapor to exit.) Guard cells themselves have thin
outer walls and thicker inner walls to facilitate this movement.
Data Analysis & Calculation Questions
Topic 2 – Paper 1
• Magnification calculations: Use the formula magnification = image size ÷ object size, ensuring both
are in the same units 22 . For example, if an object is 0.05 mm in reality and appears 100 mm in an
image, magnification = 100 ÷ 0.05 = ×2000 22 . (Alternatively, total magnification = eyepiece ×
objective powers, e.g. 10× × 10× = 100×.) Always convert units appropriately (e.g. µm to mm) 22 .
• Surface-area-to-volume ratio: A common analysis involves calculating SA:V to explain diffusion
rates. (E.g. a small cube 1×1×1 has SA=6 units², V=1 unit³, SA:V=6:1.) Students should show working
and state SA:V result (no direct citation needed).
• Rate calculations: Rate = change in quantity ÷ time or graph slope. (E.g. rate of diffusion or
transpiration). Use the correct units. (No specific citation; standard knowledge.)
Long Answer Questions
Topic 1 – Paper 1
• Comparison of plant vs animal cells: Model answer: “Both plant and animal cells are eukaryotic
(have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles). However, plant cells have cellulose cell walls and
chloroplasts for photosynthesis, whereas animal cells do not 23 . Animal cells instead often have
many mitochondria for movement and activity, and store carbohydrate as glycogen 5 . Both store
carbohydrates, but plants store starch/sucrose 4 while animals store glycogen 5 . Both have a
nucleus (containing DNA), cytoplasm, and cell membrane.”
• Autotroph vs heterotroph: Model answer: “Autotrophs (e.g. plants) produce their own food by
photosynthesis (using chloroplasts to convert CO₂ and H₂O into glucose) 11 4 . Heterotrophs (e.g.
animals, fungi, many bacteria) obtain organic nutrients from other organisms. For example, animals
ingest food and fungi secrete enzymes onto dead matter and absorb nutrients (saprotrophic
nutrition) 24 . Thus plants are autotrophic (photosynthetic) 4 , while animals and fungi are
heterotrophic (store energy as glycogen or use decomposed matter) 5 7 .”
3
• Why viruses are not living organisms: Model answer: “Viruses lack cellular structure. Each virus
particle consists only of a protein coat and nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) 9 . They do not have
organelles or metabolism of their own and cannot reproduce outside a host cell. In contrast, all
living cells (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, protoctists) contain cellular organelles and perform life
processes. Thus viruses are classified as non-living infectious particles 9 .”
Topic 2 – Paper 2
• Adaptations of alveoli for gas exchange: Model answer: “Alveoli provide a huge total surface area
(≈50–75 m² in human lungs 20 ) so that gases diffuse quickly. Their walls are one cell thick (type I
pneumocytes), minimizing diffusion distance 19 . They are surrounded by a dense network of
capillaries, maintaining steep concentration gradients for O₂ and CO₂. The inner surface is moist,
allowing oxygen to dissolve and diffuse through membranes. In summary: large number of alveoli
(high SA), thin permeable wall, extensive blood supply, and moist lining all maximise gas exchange
19 .”
• Role of stomata and guard cells: Model answer: “Stomata are pores on leaf surfaces that allow gas
exchange (CO₂ in, O₂ and water vapor out). Each stoma is flanked by two guard cells whose turgor
controls opening. When guard cells accumulate K⁺ ions, water enters by osmosis and they swell,
bowing apart to open the pore 21 . This lets CO₂ enter for photosynthesis; excess O₂ and water
vapor exit. In darkness or drought, K⁺ leaves guard cells, they lose water and become flaccid, closing
the pore. Thus guard cells actively regulate gas exchange and water loss 21 .”
• Water and mineral uptake by roots: Model answer: “Root hair cells greatly increase surface area for
absorption. Water enters root hairs by osmosis (soil water has higher water potential than the cell
sap) 13 . Minerals (e.g. nitrate ions) often enter by active transport: root hair cells use ATP to pump
ions from low concentration in soil into higher concentration inside cells 14 . The mineral ions lower
the water potential in the root, promoting more water uptake by osmosis. This combination of active
ion uptake and osmosis efficiently absorbs nutrients.”
• Active transport in nutrient uptake: Model answer: “Active transport allows cells to absorb
substances against a concentration gradient using energy (ATP). For example, root cells use active
transport to concentrate mineral ions from dilute soil solution into the cytoplasm 14 . Carrier
proteins in membranes shuttle ions (like K⁺, NO₃⁻) across the membrane against the gradient. This is
essential when soil nutrient levels are low. The requirement of energy and transport proteins
distinguishes active transport from diffusion 14 .”
Sources: Content is based on the Edexcel IGCSE Biology specification and reliable biology references 23
25 26 19 21 13 14 . The embedded diagrams (for a plant cell, animal cell, bacterium, chloroplast,
alveolus, stomatal guard cells) are provided for illustration and labelling practice. Each answer includes
terminology and phrasing typical of full-mark model answers in past Edexcel exams.
1 2 11 16 26 Definitions - Topic 1 The Nature and Variety of Living Organisms - Edexcel Biology IGCSE
[Link]
Organisms/[Link]
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 17 18 23 24 25 Pearson Edexcel International GCSE in Biology (4BI1)
[Link]
assessments/[Link]
4
12 Cell - Membrane Transport, Osmosis, Diffusion | Britannica
[Link]
13 Osmosis, Tonicity, and Hydrostatic Pressure
[Link]
14 Physiology, Active Transport - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
[Link]
19 20 Alveoli - Physiopedia
[Link]
21 File:Opening and Closing of [Link] - Wikimedia Commons
[Link]
22 Cells, microscopes and measuring
[Link]