Semiconductors

A Semiconductor is a kind of material that performs conductivity between

conductors and insulators and has a conductivity value that lies between
the conductor and an insulator.
In this article, we will be going through semiconductors, first, we will start our article
with the introduction of the semiconductor, then we will go through holes and
electrons with band gap theory, and after that we will go through properties and types
of semiconductors, At last, we will conclude our article with solved examples,
applications and advantages with some FAQs.

What Are Semiconductors

Semiconductor materials have some electrical properties that contribute to the
operation of some electronic devices. In this, the resistivity falls as the
temperature increases, whereas metal behaves differently in this term which is
oppositely. It helps in the conduction of electricity in certain situations or
conditions but not in all - the integrated circuits, transistors, and diodes all are
made up of semiconductors. Apart from electricity conduction - it also functions
to react to heat and light.
Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors
Holes and electronics are basically the charge carriers of the Semiconductor
which results in the flow of current or electricity through it. Electrons, which
carry a negative charge, orbit the nucleus of an atom. In semiconductors, they
are assumed to be the primary carriers of electric charge. Within the
semiconductor's valence band, electrons are confined to atoms and exert limited
influence on current flow. In a Semiconductor, when an electron leaves a place
due to getting energy a place is left behind which is known as a hole. A hole in
a Semiconductor represents a region of positive charge where an electron's
absence has left an opening in the covalent bond between atoms.
Mobility of Electrons and Holes
In Semiconductors like silicon, the mobility of the electrons surpass the holes
due to their fundamental differences in their behavior within the material's
structure.
The Electrons reside and move within the conduction band of the
semiconductor, while holes, which result from electrons transitioning to higher
energy levels, move within the valence band. When an electric field is applied,
electrons are comparatively less hindered in their movement than holes due to
their greater freedom within the conduction [Link] electrons are negatively
charged which makes them experience less resistance from the positively
charged atomic nuclei as they traverse the lattice compared to holes, which
possess a positive charge and thus encounter stronger repulsion from the nuclei.

Band Theory of Semiconductors

Given Below is the diagram for the Band Theory
Semiconductor by Band Gap
As we can see from diagram of Band Gap of a Semiconductor, the following
terms are expressed below:
 Insulators are the materials which have highest energy gap between
conduction and valence band so even by applying some amount of energy
electron cannot be moved from valence to conduction band so conduction
of electricity is not possible in these materials according to band gap
theory.
 Semiconductors are the materials which have energy gap
between conductors and insulators. In these materials electrons can be
moved from valence band to conduction band by applying some amount
of energy. But they don't conduct at normal conditions some energy equal
to band gap between valence and conduction band need to be supplied for
conductivity.


Valence Band and Conduction Band in Semiconductors

 Valence Band: It is the energy levels of valence electrons that represents
the highest occupied energy band. As Compared to insulators,
semiconductors have a smaller band gap, which makes electrons in the
valence band to move to the conduction band when external energy is
provided.
 Conduction Band: It is situated below the valence band, consists of
unoccupied energy levels and accommodates either positive charge
carriers (holes) or negative charge carriers (free electrons). In
semiconductors, the conduction band accepts electrons from the valence
band.
As we can notice in above image that there is no band gap between
conductors valence and conduction band are collapsed so
in conductor materials no energy is need to be supplied to them in order to
conduct.
Classification of Semiconductors
What Is the Fermi Level in Semiconductors?
The Fermi Energy level in the Semiconductors is referred as the energy level
within the band gap Where the probability of finding an electron is 50%.At
absolute zero temperature, the Fermi level is at the top of the valence band in an
intrinsic semiconductor. However when the temperature increases, some
electrons gain enough energy to move from the valence band to the conduction
band, leaving behind holes in the valence band. This movement causes the
Fermi level to shift towards the middle of the band gap. The Positioning of the
fermi level with respect to energy bands effects the conductivity and other
electronic properties of semiconductors.
Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors
On the basis of energy gap semiconductors can be divided into:
 Direct Band Gap Semiconductors
 Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors.
Direct and Indirect Bandgap
Direct Band Gap
As we can see from above image the bandgap is said to be direct if the top of
valence band and the bottom of the conduction band are at same
momentum. This means that the energy difference between the conduction
band and the valence band is released in the form of a photon without any
change in momentum.
As a result, direct bandgap semiconductors efficiently emit or absorb light
(photons) during electronic transitions. The efficient emission of light makes
direct bandgap semiconductors ideal for optoelectronic applications, such as
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes.
Examples: Gallium arsenide (GaAs), Indium phosphide (InP), Gallium nitride
(GaN) etc.
Indirect Bandgap
In Indirect Bandgap semiconductors the top of valence band and the bottom
of conduction band don't have same momentum. As a result, the energy
difference between the conduction band and the valence band cannot be directly
converted into a photon. Some change in the momentum and value of k is
needed to convert the energy gap into photon.
Examples: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge) etc.
Properties of Semiconductor
Some important properties of a Semiconductor are:
Energy Gap: Semiconductors have a band gap, an energy range positioned
between the valence band (with tightly bound electrons) and the conduction
band (permitting electron movement), influencing their conductive or insulating
nature.
Dopant Introduction: Controlled introduction of impurities (doping) into
semiconductors intentionally alters their electrical characteristics, generating
excess charge carriers (N-type) or "holes" (P-type) for conductivity control.
Temperature Responsiveness: Semiconductors' conductivity varies with
temperature, making them suitable for applications like thermistors and
temperature sensors.
Light Sensitivity: Certain semiconductors become more conductive upon light
exposure, proving valuable in photodetectors and solar cells.
Mechanical Influence: Semiconductors' resistance can change with mechanical
stress (piezo-resistivity), applied in strain gauges and pressure sensors.
Heat Conductance: With intermediate thermal conductivity, semiconductors
manage controlled heat dissipation, crucial for integrated circuits.
Dielectric Qualities: Semiconductors can act as insulating dielectrics under
specific circumstances, contributing to capacitors and energy storage
mechanisms.
Electroluminescence: When subjected to voltage, specific semiconductors
emit light, essential in LEDs and displays.
 Quantum Aspects: On the nanoscale, semiconductors reveal quantum
effects exploited in quantum dots and quantum well structures for
advanced uses.
 Hall Effect: Semiconductors exhibit the Hall effect, where an electric
field perpendicular to the current generates measurable voltage,
applicable in Hall sensors and current measurement.
 Carrier Mobility: The movement ability of charge carriers (electrons
and holes) within semiconductors is determined by carrier mobility,
influencing device efficiency and speed.
 Resistivity (ρ): The resistivity decreases with the increase of temperature
because of the increase in number of the mobile charge carriers and thus
making the temperature coefficient negative.
 Conductivity (σ): The semiconductors act as insulators as zero kelvin but
when the temperature increases they start working as the conductors.
 Carrier Concentration (n or p): In semiconductors, the carrier
concentration refers to the number of charge carriers (electrons or holes)
per unit volumeWhy Does the Resistivity of Semiconductors Go Down
with Temperature?
The resistivity of the Semiconductor will decrease with the rise of temperature
because the higher temperature will provide the more energy to the [Link]
increase of the energy will make electron to jump from Valence band to the
conduction band.
Types of Semiconductor
Semiconductors can be classified into two types on the basis of purity:
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
 Extrinsic Semiconductors
Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as follows:
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors are the pure semiconducting materials without any
added impurity. No doping is done in this type of semiconductor materials.
Intrinsic Semiconductor include elements from Group 4 of the Periodic Table.
The mostly used elements for intrinsic semiconductor are Silicon and
Germanium as they are tetravalent and bound to the covalent bond at 0
temperature. But s the temperature increases then the atoms get unbounded and
becomes mobile charge carriers by leave their places and thus creating a hole in
that positioning. The conductivity is less and the number of electrons and holes
become equal.
Total current (I) = Ih + Ie

The Lattice of Pure Silicon Semiconductor at Different Temperatures

Given Below is the lattice bond theory of the Semiconductor
 Absolute Zero Kelvin Temperature: During this temperature the covalent
bonds are strong with no free electrons which makes the semiconductor
behave like a insulator.
 Above absolute temperature: By increasing the temperature, the valence
bonds will go in conduction bond which will make the semiconductor
behave as a poor conductor.
Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor
Given Below is the Energy band diagram of the Intrinsic Semiconductor

In this diagram we can see that with the finite temperature the probability of
existing the electron in the conduction band will decrease exponentially with
respect to the increase in the band gap
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Extrinsic semiconductors are intentionally doped with impurity atoms to alter
their electrical properties and increase their conductivity. Doping involves
introducing a small number of foreign atoms into the crystal lattice of the
intrinsic semiconductor. The most common dopants are from Group III
(trivalent) and Group V (pentavalent) elements.
There are two main types of extrinsic semiconductors, depending on the type of
dopant used:
 N-type Semiconductors
 P-type Semiconductors
N-type Semiconductors
In N-type Semiconductors, the semiconductor material is doped with atoms
from Group V of the periodic table, such as phosphorus (P) or arsenic (As).
These dopant atoms have one extra valence electron compared to the
semiconductor material. When they replace some of the semiconductor atoms,
they create extra electrons in the crystal lattice.
 Conductivity is mainly because of electrons.
 The material is entirely neutral.
 The current (I) is due to electron current (Ie), and the concentration of
electrons (ne) is much greater than that of holes (nh).
 Majority carriers are electrons, and minority carriers are holes.
P-type Semiconductors
In order to form p type Semiconductor, trivalent impurity is added to it. These
elements have three electrons in there valence shell and need 1 more electron.
These are from Group III of the periodic table, such as Boron (B) or Aluminum
(Al). These dopant atoms have one less valence electron compared to the
semiconductor material. When they are added in semiconductor atoms they take
one electron and create holes in the crystal lattice.
 Conductivity is mainly because of the holes.
 The material is entirely neutral.
 The current (I) is due to hole current (Ih), and the concentration of holes
(nh) is much greater than that of electrons (ne).
 Majority carriers are holes, and minority carriers are electrons.
Formation of PN Junction by N and P type Semiconductor

PN Junction Forward Bias

 Creating P and N type Semiconductor by doping: P type
semiconductor can be formed by doping the pure semiconductor such as
germanium or silicon by adding impurities In P type Group 3 elements
are added such as boron Aluminium. N type semiconductor can be made
by adding impurities from atoms of Group 5 such as arsenic or
phosphorus.
 Bringing the created N and P type Semiconductor together: We need
to take the p and n type semiconductor closer in order to form PN
Junction. The free electrons of negative N type region will move towards
the P type semiconductor and the holes move in opposite direction
towards n type region. The holes and the electrons recombine with each
other a form a region where no free mobile charge carriers(charge carriers
which have movement ) are present it is known as depletion region.
In a forward bias, when a positive voltage is applied to the P-side and negative
voltage to the N-side, the potential barrier is reduced, and current can flow
across the junction. In reverse bias, where the P-side is negative and the N-side
is positive, the potential barrier increases, and the junction prevents significant
current flow.
Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor
Here are the main differences between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductor:
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

intrinsic semiconductor is a pure An extrinsic semiconductor has added

semiconductor material like silicon or impurities (dopants) to change its
germanium. electrical properties.

In intrinsic semiconductors, thermal

Extrinsic semiconductors can be N-
energy moves electrons to the
type (more electrons) or P-type (more
conduction band, creating electron-
holes), based on the additives used.
hole pairs.

At typical temperatures, intrinsic

Extrinsic semiconductors have much
semiconductors exhibit low
higher conductivity than intrinsic ones
conductivity due to the constrained
because doping adds more charge
count of charge carriers generated by
carriers.
thermal effects.

Intrinsic semiconductors have a

Doping can also marginally alter the
relatively large energy gap between
energy gap of extrinsic
their valence and conduction bands
semiconductors, particularly in the
compared to extrinsic
presence of specific additives.
semiconductors.

Intrinsic semiconductors aren't very

Extrinsic semiconductors are used in
conductive, so they're not used much
many electronics like transistors and
in devices. But they're important for
solar cells because they have
understanding how semiconductors
controllable high conductivity.
work.

Applications of Semiconductor
Semiconductor materials are very useful in our everyday live below are some common
examples-
 Computers: The chips and microprocessors which are called the core of
computer are made of of semiconductors. These are the parts which helps the
 computers in processing data. Complex operations are not possible without
these chips.
 Use in electronic devices: Basic electronic devices which we use such as
Switches, electric circuits, diodes, transistors are made using semiconductors
 Light-emitting diodes (LEDs): LEDs are used in home for lightning these are
semiconductor devices which produce light when current is passed through
them. LEDs are used in everyday lighting applications, including energy-
efficient bulbs for homes and offices, as well as in traffic signals, vehicle
headlights, and electronic displays.
 Wearable Technology: The wearable devices such as smart watches now in
latest smart rings have been built they are only possible using semiconductor
technology. Because in them microprocessor chips are used which can be made
using semiconductors
 Home Automation: Semiconductors are a crucial part of home automation
systems, allowing for smart home devices like smart thermostats, smart lighting,
smart security cameras, and voice-activated virtual assistants.
Uses of Semiconductors in Everyday Life
Given below are the day to day uses of Semiconductors
 Computers and Laptops: The CPUs and GPUs are made from Semiconductor
technology.
 Televisions: The Modern day LED and OLED are made from Semiconductor
materials.
 Communication: Many communication devices such as Routers ,Modems,
Satellite and GPS Systems are made from semiconductor chips.
 Lighting: Lighting systems such as LED Light are made from semiconductor
materials.
Importance of Semiconductors
Importance of Semiconductors are
 Small Size: The Semiconductors are manufactured at microscopic scales which
can be used for creating compact and portable device.
 Low Power Consumption: The Semiconductors require less input power
compared to other technologies.
 Shockproof: Semiconductor devices are solid-state and have no moving parts
which make them resistant to physical shocks and vibrations.
  Long Lifespan: The Semiconductors have large lifespan as compared to other
technologies.
 Noise-Free Operation: The Semiconductor devices works with less electrical
noise which improves its performance.

Advantages of Semiconductor
Here are some advantages of a semiconductor:
 Miniaturization: Semiconductors are used in extremely small devices such
as microprocessors and chips. They allows miniaturization in so that the
devices which took a lot of space, with help of semiconductors can be made in
small sizes.
 Energy Efficiency: As compared to other materials semiconductor is an energy
efficient device. They consume lower energy compared to other materials
while the electronic operations are performed.
 Light Emission: Certain semiconductor have the property to emit light when
the electric current is passed through them. This made the LEDs (Light
Emitting Diodes) possible and also the laser diodes.
 High Switching Speed: The switching speed in semiconductors in
comparatively very high which allows fast switching in devices. This is
important property because it saves time and lowers the complexity and also
allows them to perform fast digital operations.
 Formation of IC: Integrated circuits (ICs) can incorporate millions of
semiconductor devices on a single chip, leading to complex functionalities in a
compact form.
Disadvantages of Semiconductor
Some of the disadvantages of a Semiconductor are:
 Temperature Vulnerability: Semiconductor gadgets can react strongly to
changes in temperature, leading to shifts in how they work and how dependable
they are.
 Expensive Production: Making semiconductors involves intricate processes and
specialized facilities, resulting in high initial manufacturing expenses.
 Heat Tolerance Limits: Some semiconductors can't endure high temperatures
well. This could lead to their performance dropping or even failing.
  Reliance on Purity: The efficiency of semiconductors heavily depends on how
pure they are. Even minor impurities can drastically change their electrical
characteristics.
 Issues with Consistency: Over time, specific semiconductor devices might
degrade or wear out, negatively affecting their dependability and lifespan.
Conclusion
he chemical and electrical properties of Semiconductors help them to serve for the
electronic devices LEDs , solar cell, etc. Without the use of the semiconductors, life
would be complex and different. Semiconductor material the main reason behind them
is they have moderate and controlled conductivity which can be changed by doping.
Semiconductors have unique properties which make it favorable for making a lot of
devices from them.

Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and

insulators. Semiconductors are classified as intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic
semiconductors. Extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as N-type and P-type
semiconductors.
The P-N junction is formed between the p-type and the n-type semiconductors. In this
session, let us know more about the P-N Junction.
What is P-N Junction?
Definition: A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor
material types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.
In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side
or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or the
negative side has an excess of electrons. The process of doping is explained in further
detail in the next section.
Formation of P-N Junction
As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a P-N junction,
there will be a grain boundary that would inhibit the movement of electrons from one
side to the other by scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the process of
doping. We will understand the process of doping with the help of this example. Let
us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of
pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type silicon.
This sheet will now contain both the p-type region and the n-type region and a
junction between these two regions. The processes that follow after forming a P-N
junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. There is a difference in the
concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction. The holes from the
p-side diffuse to the n-side, and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side.
These give rise to a diffusion current across the junction.

Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionised donor is left
behind on the n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of positive
charge is developed on the n-side of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from
the p-side to the n-side, an ionized acceptor is left behind on the p-side, resulting in
the formation of a layer of negative charges in the p-side of the junction. This region
of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the junction is termed as the
depletion region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side of the
junction, an electric field with the direction from a positive charge towards the
negative charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the
junction moves to the n-side of the junction. This motion is termed the drift. Here, we
see that the direction of the drift current is opposite to that of the diffusion current.
Biasing Conditions for the P-N Junction Diode
There are two operating regions in the P-N junction diode:
 P-type
 N-type
There are three biasing conditions for the P-N junction diode, and this is based on the
voltage applied:
 Zero bias: No external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode.
  Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the
p-type while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
 Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is connected to the
p-type and the positive is connected to the n-type.

Forward Bias

When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the n-type to
the negative terminal, then the P-N junction is said to be forward-biased. When
the P-N junction is forward biased, the built-in electric field at the P-N junction
and the applied electric field are in opposite directions. When both the electric
fields add up, the resultant electric field has a magnitude lesser than the built-in
electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner depletion region. The
depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied voltage is
large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region
becomes completely negligible, and the current flows across it unimpeded.

Reverse Bias
When the p-type is connected to the battery’s negative terminal and the n-type
is connected to the positive side, the P-N junction is reverse biased. In this case,
the built-in electric field and the applied electric field are in the same direction.
When the two fields are added, the resultant electric field is in the same
direction as the built-in electric field, creating a more resistive, thicker depletion
region. The depletion region becomes more resistive and thicker if the applied
voltage becomes larger.
P-N Junction Formula
The formula used in the P-N junction depends upon the built-in potential
difference created by the electric field is given as:
Where,
 E0 is the zero bias junction voltage
 VT is the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature
 ND and NA are the impurity concentrations
 ni is the intrinsic concentration.
-Current flow in the PN junction diode:
The flow of electrons from the n-side towards the p-side of the junction takes place
when there is an increase in the voltage. Similarly, the flow of holes from the p-side
towards the n-side of the junction takes place along with the increase in the voltage.
This results in the concentration gradient between both sides of the terminals. Due to
the concentration gradient formation, charge carriers will flow from higher-
concentration regions to lower-concentration regions. The movement of charge
carriers inside the P-N junction is the reason behind the current flow in the circuit.
V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

VI characteristics of P-N junction diodes is a curve between the voltage and

current through the circuit. Voltage is taken along the x-axis while the current is
taken along the y-axis. The above graph is the V-I characteristics curve of the P-
N junction diode. With the help of the curve, we can understand that there are
three regions in which the diode works, and they are:
 Zero bias
 Forward bias
 Reverse bias
When the P-N junction diode is in zero bias condition, there is no external
voltage applied and this means that the potential barrier at the junction does not
allow the flow of current.
When the P-N junction diode is in forward bias condition, the p-type is
connected to the positive terminal while the n-type is connected to the negative
terminal of the external voltage. When the diode is arranged in this manner,
there is a reduction in the potential barrier. For silicone diodes, when the
voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the
potential barriers decrease, and there is a flow of current.
When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly, and the curve
obtained is non-linear as the voltage applied to the diode overcomes the
potential barrier. Once the diode overcomes the potential barrier, the diode
behaves normally, and the curve rises sharply as the external voltage increases,
and the curve obtained is linear.
When the P-N junction diode is in negative bias condition, the p-type is
connected to the negative terminal while the n-type is connected to the positive
terminal of the external voltage. This results in an increase in the potential
barrier. Reverse saturation current flows in the beginning as minority carriers
are present in the junction.
When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have increased
kinetic energy which affects the majority charges. This is the stage when the
diode breaks down. This may also destroy the diode.
Applications of P-N Junction Diode
 P-N junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive
to the light when the configuration of the diode is reverse-biased.
 It can be used as a solar cell.
 When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting
applications.
 It is used as rectifier in many electric circuits and as a voltage-controlled
oscillator in varactors.

Conduction in Semiconductors
1. Semiconductors act as insulators at low temperatures and conductors at
higher temperatures.
2. Conduction occurs at higher temperature because the electrons
surrounding the semiconductor atoms can break away from their covalent
bond and move freely about the lattice
 3. The conductive property of semiconductors forms the basis for
understanding how we can use these materials in electrical devices.
The bond structure of a semiconductor determines the material properties of a
semiconductor. One key effect are the energy levels which the electrons can
occupy and how they move about the crystal lattice. The electrons in the
covalent bond formed between each of the atoms in the lattice structure are held
in place by this bond and hence they are localized to the region surrounding the
atom. These bonded electrons cannot move or change energy, and thus are not
considered "free" and cannot participate in current flow, absorption, or other
physical processes of interest in solar cells. However, only at absolute zero
are all electrons in this "stuck," bonded arrangement. At elevated
temperatures, especially at the temperatures where solar cells operate, electrons
can gain enough energy to escape from their bonds. When this happens, the
electrons are free to move about the crystal lattice and participate in conduction.
At room temperature, a semiconductor has enough free electrons to allow it to
conduct current. At or close to absolute zero a semiconductor behaves like an
insulator.
When an electron gains enough energy to participate in conduction (is "free"), it
is at a high energy state. When the electron is bound, and thus cannot participate
in conduction, the electron is at a low energy state. Therefore, the presence of
the bond between the two atoms introduces two distinct energy states for the
electrons. The electron cannot attain energy values intermediate to these two
levels; it is either at a low energy position in the bond, or it has gained enough
energy to break free and therefore has a certain minimum energy. This
minimum energy is called the "band gap" of a semiconductor. The number and
energy of these free electrons, those electrons participating in conduction, is
basic to the operation of electronic devices.
The space left behind by the electrons allows a covalent bond to move from one
electron to another, thus appearing to be a positive charge moving through the
crystal lattice. This empty space is commonly called a "hole", and is similar to
an electron, but with a positive charge.
 Diode Equation
Overview

1.
2. I0 is directly related to recombination, and thus, inversely related to
material quality.
3. Non-ideal diodes include an "n" term in the denominator of the exponent.
N is the ideality factor, ranging from 1-2, that increases with decreasing
current.
Note that:
 I0 increases as T increases; and
 I0 decreases as material quality increases.
At 300K, kT/q = 25.85 mV, the "thermal voltage".
Non-Ideal Diodes
For actual diodes, the expression becomes:
where:
n = ideality factor, a number between 1 and 2 which typically increases as the
current decreases.
The diode equation is plotted on the interactive graph below. Change the
saturation current and watch the changing of IV curve. Note that although you
can simply vary the temperature and ideality factor the resulting IV curves are
misleading. In the simulation it is implied that the input parameters are
independent but they are not. In real devices, the saturation current is strongly
dependent on the device temperature. Similarly, mechanisms that change the
ideality factor also impact the saturation current.

RECTIFIERS

Given below is the half-wave rectifier diagram:

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

In this section, let us understand how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into
DC.
 1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down
transformer. The obtained secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC
voltage and reverse biased during the negative half cycle.
3. The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:

For better understanding, let us simplify the half-wave circuit by replacing the
secondary transformer coils with a voltage source as shown below:

For the positive half cycle of the AC source voltage, the circuit effectively
becomes as shown below in the diagram:
When the diode is forward biased, it acts as a closed switch. But, during the
negative half cycle of the AC source voltage, the equivalent circuit becomes as
shown in the figure below

When a diode is reverse biased, it acts as an open switch. Since no current can
flow to the load, the output voltage is equal to zero.
Half Wave Rectifier Waveform
The halfwave rectifier waveform before and after rectification is shown below
in the figure.
Half Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter
The output waveform of a halfwave rectifier is a pulsating DC waveform.
Filters in halfwave rectifiers are used to transform the pulsating waveform into
constant DC waveforms. A capacitor or an inductor can be used as a filter.
The circuit diagram below shows how a capacitive filter is used with halfwave
rectifier to smoothen out a pulsating DC waveform into a constant DC
waveform.

Half Wave Rectifier Capacitor Filter

Here's the circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier with a capacitor filter.
 Half
Wave Rectifier with Filter
Working of Half Wave Rectifier with Filter
In a Half-wave rectifier with a filter, the Diode is connected in series to a
capacitor and Load resistor which in turn are connected parallelly as shown in
the above circuit diagram. In this circuit, the capacitor charges in the positive
half-cycle and discharges during the negative half-cycle and reduces ripples in
the output.
In a positive half cycle, the diode acts as a short circuit and the capacitor
charges from the input source. In the negative half cycle when the diode acts as
an open circuit, the capacitor discharges providing current flow into the Load.
Thus adding a capacitor to the circuit helps to maintain DC output even when
AC is in negative half cycle. Given below is the output waveform of the Half
wave rectifier with Filter.
Output waveform of a Half wave rectifier with capacitor filter
Thus a capacitor helps to reduce ripples in the DC output of a half-wave
rectifier.

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Here are a few common applications of half wave rectifiers:
 They are used for signal demodulation purpose
 They are used for rectification applications
 They are used for signal peak applications
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
 Power loss
 Low output voltage
 The output contains a lot of ripples
 Half Wave Rectifier Formula

 Form Factor (FF) of a Halfwave Rectifier

 Form factor is defined as the ratio of the RMS value of voltage to the average
value of output voltage.
 FF =RMS Value/Avg Value= Vrms / Vavg

 Ripple factor (γ) of Half Wave Rectifier

 Ripple factor determines the quality of rectification of AC to DC. The lower

the value of the ripple factor, the higher the quality of rectification.

 We use capacitors and inductors in rectification circuits to decrease the ripple

factor.

 The ripple factor of a half rectifier without any filters is 1.21.

Efficiency (η) of Half Wave Rectifier

 Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output DC power to input AC power.

 η= (Pout / Pin)x100

RMS Value of Half Wave Rectifier

 Irms and Idc: Irms is the average value of the output current and Idc is output
current at load

Defining Full Wave Rectifiers

A full wave rectifier is defined as a rectifier that converts the complete cycle of
alternating current into pulsating DC.
Unlike halfwave rectifiers that utilize only the halfwave of the input AC cycle,
full wave rectifiers utilize the full cycle. The lower efficiency of the half wave
rectifier can be overcome by the full wave rectifier.
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
The circuit of the full wave rectifier can be constructed in two ways. The first
method uses a centre tapped transformer and two diodes. This arrangement is
known as a centre tapped full wave rectifier. The second method uses a standard
transformer with four diodes arranged as a bridge. This is known as a bridge
rectifier. In the next section, we will restrict the discussion to the centre tapped
full wave rectifier only. You can read our article on bridge rectifier to learn the
construction and working of bridge rectifier in detail.

The circuit of the full wave rectifier consists of a step-down transformer and
two diodes that are connected and centre tapped. The output voltage is obtained
across the connected load resistor.
Working of Full Wave Rectifier
The input AC supplied to the full wave rectifier is very high. The step-down
transformer in the rectifier circuit converts the high voltage AC into low voltage
AC. The anode of the centre tapped diodes is connected to the transformer’s
secondary winding and connected to the load resistor. During the positive half
cycle of the alternating current, the top half of the secondary winding becomes
positive while the second half of the secondary winding becomes negative.
During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased as it is connected to
the top of the secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse biased as it is
connected to the bottom of the secondary winding. Due to this, diode D1 will
conduct acting as a short circuit and D2 will not conduct acting as an open
circuit
During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode
D2 is forward biased because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes
negative and the bottom half of the circuit becomes positive. Thus in a full wave
rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for both positive and negative half cycle.
Full Wave Rectifier Formula
Peak Inverse Voltage
Peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage a diode can withstand in the
reverse-biased direction before breakdown. The peak inverse voltage of the full-
wave rectifier is double that of a half-wave rectifier. The PIV across D1 and
D2 is 2Vmax.
DC Output Voltage
The following formula gives the average value of the DC output voltage:
RMS Value of Current
The RMS value of the current can be calculated using the following formula:

Form Factor
The form factor of the full wave rectifier is calculated using the formula:

Peak Factor
The following formula gives the peak factor of the full wave rectifier:

Rectification Efficiency
The rectification efficiency of the full-wave rectifier can be obtained using the
following formula:
The efficiency of the full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier
 The rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is double that of half
wave rectifiers. The efficiency of half wave rectifiers is 40.6% while the
rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.
 The ripple factor in full wave rectifiers is low hence a simple filter is
required. The value of ripple factor in full wave rectifier is 0.482 while in
half wave rectifier it is about 1.21.
  The output voltage and the output power obtained in full wave rectifiers
are higher than that obtained using half wave rectifiers.
The only disadvantage of the full wave rectifier is that they need more circuit
elements than the half wave rectifier which makes, making it costlier.

Bridge Rectifier

Construction
The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge
rectifier circuit is made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The
four diodes are connected in a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert
the alternating current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). The main advantage of
this configuration is the absence of the expensive centre-tapped transformer.
Therefore, the size and cost are reduced.

The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal
is obtained across the load resistor RL connected between terminals C and D.
The four diodes are arranged in such a way that only two diodes conduct
electricity during each half cycle. D1 and D3 are pairs that conduct electric
current during the positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
electric current during a negative half cycle.
Working
When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes
positive during the positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This
results in diodes D1 and D3 becoming forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming
reverse biased.
The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the figure below:

During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A

becomes negative. This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and
diode D1 and D3 to be reverse biased.
The current flow during the negative half cycle is shown in the figure below:
From the figures given above, we notice that the current flow across load
resistor RL is the same during the positive and negative half-cycles. The output
DC signal polarity may be either completely positive or negative. In our case, it
is completely positive. If the diodes’ direction is reversed, we get a complete
negative DC voltage.
Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative
half cycles of the input AC signal.
The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure.

Characteristics of Bridge Rectifier

Ripple Factor
The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by a factor known as the
ripple factor. The output DC signal with fewer ripples is considered a smooth
DC signal while the output with high ripples is considered a high pulsating DC
signal.
Mathematically, the ripple factor is defined as the ratio of ripple voltage to pure
DC voltage.
The ripple factor for a bridge rectifier is given by
For bridge rectifiers, the ripple factor is 0.48.
Peak Inverse Voltage
The maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the reverse bias condition is
known as a peak inverse voltage. During the positive half cycle, the diodes
D1 and D3 are in the conducting state while D2 and D4 are in the non-conducting
state. Similarly, during the negative half cycle, diodes D2 and D4 are in the
conducting state, and diodes D1 and D3 are in the non-conducting state.
Efficiency
The rectifier efficiency determines how efficiently the rectifier converts
Alternating Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). Rectifier efficiency is
defined as the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power. The
maximum efficiency of a bridge rectifier is 81.2%.
Advantages
 The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is higher than the efficiency of a
half-wave rectifier. However, the rectifier efficiency of the bridge
rectifier and the centre-tapped full-wave rectifier is the same.
 The DC output signal of the bridge rectifier is smoother than the output
DC signal of a half-wave rectifier.
 In a half-wave rectifier, only half of the input AC signal is used, and the
other half is blocked. Half of the input signal is wasted in a half-wave
rectifier. However, in a bridge rectifier, the electric current is allowed
during both positive and negative half cycles of the input AC signal.
Hence, the output DC signal is almost equal to the input AC signal.
Disadvantages
 The circuit of a bridge rectifier is complex when compared to a half-wave
rectifier and centre-tapped full-wave rectifier. Bridge rectifiers use 4
diodes while half-wave rectifiers and centre-tapped full wave rectifiers
use only two diodes.
 When more diodes are used more power loss occurs. In a centre-tapped
full-wave rectifier, only one diode conducts during each half cycle. But in
a bridge rectifier, two diodes connected in series conduct during each half
cycle. Hence, the voltage drop is higher in a bridge rectifier.