Surfaces

Introduction
Shape design and the representation of complex objects such as
car, ship, and airplane bodies as well as castings cannot be
achieved utilizing the curves.
In such cases, surfaces must be utilized to describe objects
precisely and accurately.
We create surfaces, and then we use them to cur and trim solid
features and primitivess to obtain the models of the complex
objects. Surface creation usually begins with data points or
Curves.
Surface creation on CAD/CAM systems usually requires curves
as a Start.
All covered can be used to generate surfaces. In order to
curves
visualize surfaces on a computer screen, a mesh, say m x n in
size, is usually displayed. The mesh size is controllable by the
user.
Surface Entities
Visualization of a surface is aided by the addition of artificial fairing
lines (called mesh), which crisscross the surface and so break it up
into a network of interconnected patches

CAD/CAM systems provide designers with both analytic and synthetic

surface entities.
AnalyticC entities include: plane surface, ruled surface, surface of
of
revolution, and tabulated cylinder.
Synthetic entities include: bicubic Hermite spline surface, B-spline
surface, rectangular and triangular Bezier patches, rectangular and
triangular Coons patches, and NURBS (nonuniform B-splincs)
Descriptions of major surfaces:
Plane surface: It is the simplest surface. It requires three non-coineident
points to define an infinite plane. The plane surface can be used to
generate cross sections by intersecting a solid with it.

Mpiepae
Rail (houndary curvc)

Ruled (lofted) surface: It is a linear surface. It

interpolates linearly between two boundary
curves that define the surface (rails). Rails can
be any curves. This surface is ideal for
representing surfaces that do not have any
twists or kinks.
Ral iboudory cersek
Descriptions of major surfaces:
Surface of revolution: It is an axisymmetric surface that can model
axisymmetric objects. It is generated by rotating a planar curve in space
about the axis of symmetry a
certain angle as shown in Figure.

Planar eves
Descriptions of major surfaces:
Tabulated cylinder: It is a surface generated by translating a planar
curve a certain distance along a specified direction (axis of the cylinder
or directrix) as shown in Figure. The plane of the curve is
perpendicular to the directrix, This surface is not literally a cylinder. It is
used to generate extruded surfaces that have identical cross sections.

Disectris
C O O D

Curve

CC
Descriptions of major surfaces:
Bezier surface: It is a surface that approximates or interpolates given
input data. It is different from the previous surfaces in that it is a synthetic
surface. It extends the Bezier curve to surfaces. It is a general surface
that permits twists, and kinks. Bezier surface allows only global control of
the surface. Figure shows a Bezier surface.
Descriptions of major surfaces:
B-spline surface: It is a surface that can approximate or interpolate
given input data. Figure shows an interpolating example. It is a synthetic
surface. It is a genera! surface like a Bezier surface but with the
advantage of permitting local control of the surface.

Data poials B-spiiIK surface

Descriptions of major surfaces:

Coons surface: The previously described surfaces are used with either
open boundaries or given data points. A Coons patch is used to create a
surface using curves that form closed boundaries as
shown in Figure.

Patch

Chse boundary
Descriptions of major surfaces:

Fillet suface: It is a B-spline surface that blends two surfaces together as

shown in Figure. The two original surfaces may or may not he trimmed.

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Descriptions of major surfaces:
Offset surface: Existing surfaces can be offset to create new ones
identical in shape but with different dimensions. It is a useful surface to
use to speed up surface creation.
For example, to create a hollow cylinder, the outer or inner cylinder can
be created using a cylinder command and the other one can be created
by an offset command. The offset surface command becomes very
efficient to use if the original surface is a composite one. Figure shows an
offset surface.

O re
Surface representation
The surface parametric representation means a
continuous, vector-valued function P(u, v) of two
variables, or parameters, u and v.

The variables are allowed to range over some connected

region of the u - V plane and as they do so,
P(u, v) assumes every position on the surface.

The function P(u, v) at certain

and v values is the point
u
on the surface at these values. The most general way to
describe the parametric equation of a 3D curved surface
in space is.

P(u.v)=[x yz] =[x(u, v) y(u, V) z(u, V)]

minlu Sumax:min VSVma
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Surface representation
A general 3D surface
can be modeled by
dividing it into an
assembly of topological e t r i Npace
patches.

Carsesia sace

Figure 7.13 Parametric representation of a surface.

13
 A patch is considered the basic mathematical element to create a
composite surface. Some surfaces may consist of one patch only, while
others may be a few patches connected together.
Figure shows a two-patch surface where the u and v values are [0,1],
The topology of a patch may be rectangular or triangular as shown in
Figure.
Triangular patches add more flexibility in surface modeling because
they do not require ordered rectangular arrays of data points to create
the surface as the rectangular patches do.

Fatch Pach2

Rectangular and triangular surface

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Two-patch parametric surface. patches
The tensor product method is widely used in surface formulation.

Its widespread use is largely due to its simple separable nature

involving only products of univariate basis functions, usually

polynomials.

The properties of tensor product surfaces can easily be deduced from

properties of the underlying curve schemes.

The tensor product formulation is a mapping of a rectangular domain

described by the u and v values; for example, 0s us1 and 0 Svs1.

Tensor product surfaces fit naturally onto rectangular patches

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 Boundary conditions associated with a rectangular patch
Boundary conditions
Piti.
associated with a
rectangular patch are
P
sixteen vectors and
four boundary
curves as shown in
Figure. P Pl.

PE0
Pa.0 m P(t.¬}

The vectors are four position vectors for the four corner points
P(0,0), P(1,0), P(1,1), and P(0,1); eight tangent vectors (two at
each corner); and four twist vectors at the comer points.

6
 Geometric surface analysis

Geometric surface analysis is important part of using surfaces.

an

The tangent vectors to a surface enables the user to drive a cutting tool
along the surface to machine it.
The normal vectors to the surface provides the proper directions for the
Cutting tool to approach and retractfrom the surface.
Differential geometry plays a central role in the analysis of surfaces.
The measurements of lengths and areas, the specification of directions
and angles, and the definition of curvature on a surface are formulated in

differential terms.

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 Tangent Vectors
The tangent vector at any point P(u,v) on the surface is obtained by
holding one parameter constant and differentiating the surface equation
with respect to the other.
Therefore, there are two tangent vectors, a tangent to each of the
intersecting curves passing through the point.
These vectors are given by.

Tangent vector in u direction, P: (u, v) =

du
4gnin S4S max and VSvS Va
where i, ikare the unit vectors along the x, y and z directions in the Cartesian space.
Tangent vector in v direction, P (u, v) =

ax The dot product of the two tangent vectors

P.1 du du du is equal to zero at a point on a surface,
P dx dy dz
dv
then the two vectors are perpendicular to
one another at that point.
dv dv
18
The magnitudes and unit, vectors of the tangent vectorsS
are given by

ay
du
x ay (dz
IP ( dv

IP P

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 Twist Vectors
The twist vector at a point on a surface is said to measure the twist in
the surface at the point. It is the rate of change at the tangent vector Pu
with respect to V or Py vwith respect to u. Or it is the cross derivative
vector at the point. Figure shows the geometric interpretation of the
twist vector.
[Link],3P = Puv
A0Av Ou dv
AP OP, 3P = Puv
P(aaa Limit
Au0 Au du du dv
Pn, The twist vector can be written in
terms of its cartesian components as

.-
dv du Ov du Ov
xdu dv y
du dv
.Ju av
Ou
4min S uSumax Vmin S VS Vmax

Geometric interpretation of The twist vector

twist vectors
depends on both the

surface geometric characteristics and

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its parametrization.
 n

Normal Vectors

The normal to surface is another important analytical property.

a

It is used io calculate cutler offsets for 3D NC (numerical control)

programming to machine surfaces, to make volume calculations, and to
shade a surface model.
The surface normal at a point is a vector which is perpendicular to both
tangent vectors at the point.

N ( u . v )OP
= x OP Rx P
Ou 0v

And the unit normal vector is given by n INIPXPuXPy

Py
INI PX PPpl

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Normal Vectorss

The sense of f is usually chosen so that ñ points out of the surface

being machined.
In volume calculations, the sense of n is chosen positive when
pointing toward existing material and negative when pointing to holes
in the part.

The surface normal is zero when P,x P, =

0 This
.
occurs at points Iying
on a cusp, ridge, or self-intersecting surface.
It can also occur when the two derivatives Pu and P, are parallel, or

when one of them has a zero magnitude.

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Distance Calculations

The
The calculation of the distance between two points on a curved
surface forms an important part of surface analysis.

Two distinct points on a surface can be connected by many different

paths, of different lengths, on the surface.

The paths that have minimum lengths are analogous to straight lines,
The
connecting two points in Euclidean space and are known as geodesies

Surface geodesics can, for example, provide optimized motion planning

across aa curved surface for numerical control machining, robot
programming, and winding of coils around a rotor.

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 Distance Calculations
The infinitesimal distance between two points P(u.v) and P(u + Au, v
Av) on a surface is given by

dsP du+ 2Pa l, du do P Py du*

Equation is often called the first fundamental quadratic form of a surface
and is written as ds2 = E du2 + 2F du dv + G dv2

Where
Euv) =
P, . P, Flu,v) P, P, G(u.v) P,
= .
= .

P
E, F and G are the first fundamental, or metric, coefficients of the
surface
These coefficients provide the basis for the measurement of lengths and
areas, and the specification of directions and angles on a surface.

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 Distance Calculations
The distance between two points P(ua,va) and P(u,v) shown in Figure
is obtained by integrating earlier equation along a specified path
{u = u(t), V = v{t), on the surface to give

S Eu'4 2 uv' G0dt

ta

where u' =du/dt and v= dv/dt.

The minimum distance S is the geodesic
between the two points.

The first fundamental form gives the distance element ds which lies
in the tangent plane to the surface at P(u, v) and. therefore, yields no
information on how the surface curves away from the tangent plane at
that point.
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Plane Surface
The
The parametric equation of a plane can take different forms

depending on the given data.

A plane defined by three points Po,
P and P2 and as shown in Figure. -0

Assume that the point Po defines u = 0 MH,P

and v 0 and the vectors (P,-Po) and

(P2-Po) define the u and v directions,
respectively. Assume also that the
domains for u and v are [0,1]. The
position vector of any point P on the
plane can be now written as

P(u, v)=Po+u (P,-Po) +v(Pa-Po) 0sus1,0svs1

the tangent vectors at point P are: P(u, v) = (P-Po)
2
Pu,v)= (P2-Po)
 Po
the surface normal is
n(u,v)= ,-Po)x(P2-Po
0Sus1, 0svS1
As for the curvature of the plane, it is equal because ail the
to zero
second fundamental coefficients of the plane are zeros

Another ease of constructing a plane surface

occurs when the surface passes through a P.
point Po and contains two directions defined
by the unit vectors f and s as shown in
Figure. Similar to the preceding case, the
plane equation can be written as

P(U, v) = Po+ u L + vL,S

0Sus1, 0 svs1
Ruled Surface
A ruled surface is generated by joining corresponding points on two
space cunves (rails) G(H) and Q(u) by straight lines (also called rulings
or generators) as shown in Figure.

The main characteristic of a ruled

i
surface is that it is linear in one
direction, usually the v direction.
Every developable surface is a ruled
surface. Cones and cylinders are P
Raing
examples of ruled surfaces, and the
plane surface is considered the
simplest of all ruled surfaces
G
Pia.

4
 Ruled Surface
The parametric equation of a ruled surface, consider the ruling u =
joining points G, and Q, on the rails G(u) and Q(u), respectively, as
shown in Figure. the equation of the ruling becomes

P(U,. v)=G+v(Q-G) Eq1

where v is the parameter along the
ruling. the parametric equation of a
ruledsurface defined by two rails. G(u) P(u,
and Q(u), is Rulings
P 4,

P(u, v) G(u)+vIQ(u)-G(u)]
P
(1-v)G(u) +vQ(u) Eq 2
P(u, )

Holding the u value constant in Eq. 2

produces the rulings given by Eq. 1 in the
v direction of the surface, while holding
the v value constant yields curves in the
u direction which are a linear blend of the
rails.
Ruled Surface

Closer the value of v to 0, the greater the influence of G(u) on the

surface shape, and the less the influence of Q(u) on the shape.

Similarly, the influence of Q(a) on the surface shape increases when

the v value approaches 1.

Based on Figure and Eq. 1, it is obvious that selecting the wrong ends of
the rails produces the undesirable ruled surface.
A ruled surface can only allow curvature in the u direction of the surface
provided that the rails have curvatures.
The surface curvature in the direction (along the rulings) is zero, and thus
a ruled surface
cannot be used to model surface patches that have
curvatures in two directions.
Surface of Revolution

The rotation of a planar curve an angle v about an axis of rotation

creates a circle (if v= 360) for each point on the curve.

The center of each circle lies on the axis of rotation and its radius r(u) is
variable as shown in Figure.
Profile
The planar curve and the circles are
called the profile and parallels, Meridians
Gu
respectively.
The various positions of the profile

around the axis are called meridians.

Paralieis

Axis of rotation
Surface of Revolution
To derive the parametric equation of
surface of revolution, a local
a
coordinate system with a Z axis coincident with the axis of rotation is
assumed, as shown in Figure.
This local system shown by the subscript L can be created as follows
Choose the perpendicular direction from the point u = 0 on the profile
as the X axis and the intersection point between X and Z as the
origin of the local system. The YL axis is automatically determined by
the right-hand rule.

Consider a point G(u) = P(u, 0) on the

G Pia. 0
profile that rotates an anglev about Z
when the profile rotates the same G) P
angle
Surface of Revolution
Considering the hatched triangle which is perpendicular to the axis, the
parametric equation of the surface of revolution can be written as:

P(U, v) = r(u) cosví, + r(u)sin v+,+Z(u) , 0sus1,0svs2n

If we choose z(u) = u for each point on the

profile, above equation gives the local
coordinates (X Y Z) of a point P(u v) as G

r(ucosv, rz(u)sin v, uT G Pi

Pi.
Tabulated Cylinder
A tabulated cylinder is defined as a surface that results from
translating a space planar curve along a given direction.
It can also be defined as a surface that is generated by moving a
straight line (called generatrix) along a given planar curve (called
directrix).
The straight line always slays parallel to a fixed given vector that
defines the direction of the cylinder as shown in figure.

Tabulated cytlinder

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Tabulated Cylinder
The planar curve G(u) can be any curve. The position vector of any
point P(u,v) on the surface can be written as

P(u, v) G(u) +vn, 0SuSUmax, 0 Svs Vmax

From a user point of view, G(u) is an
existing curve that the user selects to
create the cylinder, v is the cylinder
length, and n, is the cylinder axis. The
cylinder length v is specified by the
user.

ee

Tabulated oylinder
Synthetic Surfaces

Synthetic surfaces provide designers with better surface design

tools than analytic surfaces. Consider the design of blade
surfaces in jet aircraft engines. The design of these surfaces is
usually based on aerodynamic and fluid-flow simulations often
incorporating thermal and mechanical stress deformation. These
simulations yield ordered sets of discrete streamline points which
must then be connected accurately by surfaces. Any small
deviation in these aerodynamic surfaces can degrade engine
performance. Another example is the creation of blending
surfaces typically encountered in designing dies for the injection
molding of plastics.
Synthetic surfaces is presented in the following sections in a
form similar to that of curves. Surfaces covered are bicubic,
Bezier, B-spline, Coons, blending, offset, and triangular. All these
surfaces are based on polynomial forms. 12